https://bou.de/u/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Peng+DanChina Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-04T16:12:56ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.35.14https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11949120201228 trans2020-12-28T03:49:42Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
<br />
通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
<br />
据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
<br />
''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
<br />
我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
<br />
''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
<br />
''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
<br />
The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
<br />
“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
<br />
”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
<br />
Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
<br />
'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''<br />
<br />
对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
<br />
分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
<br />
2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
<br />
3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
<br />
2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
<br />
3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
<br />
1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
<br />
Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
<br />
2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
<br />
3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
<br />
在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
<br />
政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
<br />
政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.<br />
<br />
1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
<br />
上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
<br />
对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
<br />
在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
<br />
更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''<br />
<br />
相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
<br />
感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
<br />
让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
<br />
-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为什么散文像小说一样丰富？<br />
<br />
让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：<br />
<br />
这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。 对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。 散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。 它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
<br />
下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
<br />
5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
<br />
边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
<br />
目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).<br />
<br />
梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。<br />
<br />
6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。<br />
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
<br />
考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
<br />
一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
<br />
<br />
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。 原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。 周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。 在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。 一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。 两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
<br />
In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
<br />
“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.<br />
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
<br />
'''2. 兼容性<br />
'''<br />
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
<br />
首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
<br />
'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
<br />
此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。<br />
<br />
“5. 成熟和异化”<br />
<br />
抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
<br />
德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
<br />
'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
<br />
Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
<br />
According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
<br />
The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
<br />
In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
<br />
Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
<br />
在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
<br />
在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
<br />
"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
<br />
在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
<br />
在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
<br />
情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.<br />
<br />
《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。 在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。<br />
<br />
玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
<br />
在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
<br />
A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
<br />
封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
<br />
另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
<br />
它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
<br />
9. “非二进制小说”<br />
<br />
可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
“非二元”小说<br />
<br />
一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.<br />
<br />
<br />
机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信<br />
<br />
口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
<br />
3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
<br />
4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
<br />
3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
<br />
4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
<br />
8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
<br />
9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
<br />
8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
<br />
9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
<br />
4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
'''3种分析类型'''<br />
<br />
1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）<br />
<br />
2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）<br />
<br />
3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）<br />
<br />
4..流动概况/模式<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11948920201228 trans2020-12-28T03:44:54Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Dan 彭丹 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
<br />
通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
<br />
据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
<br />
''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
<br />
我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
<br />
''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
<br />
''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
<br />
The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
<br />
“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
<br />
”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
<br />
Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
<br />
'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''<br />
<br />
对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
<br />
分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
<br />
2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
<br />
3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
<br />
2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
<br />
3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
<br />
1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
<br />
Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
<br />
2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
<br />
3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
<br />
在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
<br />
政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
<br />
政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.<br />
<br />
1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
<br />
上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
<br />
对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
<br />
在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
<br />
更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''<br />
<br />
相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
<br />
感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
<br />
让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
<br />
-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
<br />
下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
<br />
5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
<br />
边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
<br />
目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).<br />
<br />
梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。<br />
<br />
6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。<br />
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
<br />
考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
<br />
一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
<br />
<br />
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。 原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。 周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。 在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。 一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。 两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
<br />
In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
<br />
“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.<br />
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.<br />
<br />
因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
<br />
'''2. 兼容性<br />
'''<br />
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
<br />
首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
<br />
'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
<br />
此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。<br />
<br />
“5. 成熟和异化”<br />
<br />
抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
<br />
德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
<br />
'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
<br />
Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
<br />
According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
<br />
The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
<br />
In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
<br />
Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
<br />
在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
<br />
在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
<br />
"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
<br />
在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
<br />
在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
<br />
情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.<br />
<br />
《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。 在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。<br />
<br />
玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
<br />
在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公从一个非常具有男性特质的人物转变成了'真正的'女人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
<br />
A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
<br />
封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
<br />
另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
<br />
它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
<br />
9. “非二进制小说”<br />
<br />
可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
“非二元”小说<br />
<br />
一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.<br />
<br />
<br />
机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信<br />
<br />
口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
<br />
3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
<br />
4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
<br />
3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
<br />
4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
<br />
8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
<br />
9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
<br />
8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
<br />
9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
<br />
4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
'''3种分析类型'''<br />
<br />
1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）<br />
<br />
2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）<br />
<br />
3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）<br />
<br />
4..流动概况/模式<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
'''9展望'''<br />
<br />
我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=118762History of Translation Studies 112020-12-21T14:54:42Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
读翻译理论书籍有感<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Junping 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) <br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.<br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) <br />
<br />
This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
<br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) <br />
<br />
During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) <br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections on Translations Methods===<br />
<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) <br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
*Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
*Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education (03) 163-168.<br />
<br />
*Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-19. <br />
<br />
*Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science (02) 107-108. <br />
<br />
*Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 103-104.<br />
<br />
*Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide (09) 220-221.<br />
<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (04) 56-72.<br />
<br />
*Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
<br />
*Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (06) 4-10.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages (01) 53-59.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
*Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University (05) 60-63.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature (09) 100-101.<br />
<br />
*Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 103-107.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (08) 162-163.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square (05) 19-20.<br />
<br />
*Zhou Lingshun 周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (06) 13-18. <br />
<br />
*Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture (14) 99-100.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu 202070080625 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》 [''The Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》 [''Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》 [''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'' ]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House ]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Translation'' ].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation'' ]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角” [Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据” [The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探” [A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报 [Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong 朱晓东 and Ding Ting 丁婷. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture" [鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018) [2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. <br />
<br />
The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Keywords is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目 is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。<br />
<br />
理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. <br />
<br />
The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. <br />
<br />
In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” <br />
<br />
For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. <br />
<br />
What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. <br />
<br />
The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
<br />
<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. <br />
<br />
Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. <br />
<br />
As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
<br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. <br />
<br />
The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. <br />
<br />
From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. <br />
<br />
However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. <br />
<br />
Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
<br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. <br />
<br />
The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. <br />
<br />
Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. <br />
<br />
It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
<br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
<br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. <br />
<br />
When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. <br />
<br />
After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. <br />
<br />
But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
<br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.<br />
<br />
Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. <br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(<span style="color:red">practices</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. <br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). <br />
<br />
As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11). <br />
<br />
In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52). <br />
<br />
The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493). <br />
<br />
2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247). <br />
<br />
After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. <br />
<br />
In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. <br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(<span style="color:red">in</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 <br />
<br />
ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 <br />
<br />
ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. <br />
<br />
After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.<br />
<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 <br />
<br />
ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. <br />
<br />
In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 <br />
<br />
ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 <br />
<br />
ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. <br />
<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.<br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. <br />
<br />
The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
[1] Chen K., Yang F. F. Research on C-E Translation of Commercial Advertisement in Xi’an [J]. Education Research Frontier, 2019 (9: 1): 16-22.<br />
<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
<br />
[4] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
<br />
[5] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
<br />
[6] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
<br />
[7] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
<br />
[8] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
<br />
[10] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
<br />
[11] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
<br />
[15] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
<br />
[16] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
<br />
[17] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
<br />
[18] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
<br />
[19] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
<br />
[20] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
<br />
[21] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
<br />
[22] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
[23] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
<br />
[24] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
<br />
[25] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
[27] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
<br />
[28] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):104-108.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. <br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。<br />
<br />
刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's working process by using linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 55) <br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1987, 10-12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin 2011, 5)<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng 2010, 25)<br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell 1987, 3)<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell 1991, F30)<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 27-29)<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao 2008, 99-100)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell 1991, 4-5)<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell 1991, 14)<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell 1991, 11)<br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde 1991, 1)<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin 2011, 6)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell 1991, 37) <br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell 1991, 10)<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin 2005, 65)<br />
<br />
The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin 2011, 7)<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong 2003, 210)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell 1991, 7)<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 56)<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell 1997, 6-10)<br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin 2005, 64)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: <br />
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;<br />
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell 1991, 61)<br />
<br />
They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell 1991, 68)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1991, 70)<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng 2011, 9-13)<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 128)<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde 1988, 4-9)<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin 1996, 295-298)<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde 1996, 31-33)<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. <br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982. <br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993. <br />
<br />
Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'', he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of ''Ulysses'', we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). "<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
"A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style." (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
"In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159)."<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of ''Ulysses''. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In ''On Translation'': with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
"In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)"<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40)."<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of ''Ulysses''. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
"The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162)."<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). The real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida, 1998). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'' by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating ''Ulysses'' , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version ''Ulysses'' appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114)."<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's ''Ulysses'', he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译《尤利西斯》]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
===Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36) <br />
<br />
In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37) <br />
<br />
By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19) <br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53) <br />
<br />
In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)<br />
<br />
Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45) <br />
<br />
Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.<br />
<br />
Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23) <br />
<br />
The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64) <br />
<br />
However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100) <br />
<br />
Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process." The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)<br />
<br />
Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) <br />
<br />
Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)<br />
<br />
In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) <br />
<br />
For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. <br />
<br />
In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588 英语笔译== <br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213). <br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).<br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).<br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84). <br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.<br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, it can be seen that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)<br />
<br />
However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison===<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋, 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 许宝强, 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） <br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. <br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====Newmark====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Both Are Translatable=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Translation Theories=====<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===My Views on Their Theories===<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).''奈达论翻译'' [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). ''当代西方翻译理论探索''[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] ''文教资料''[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] ''漯河职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] ''黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] ''铜陵学院学报'' [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] ''陕西师范大学学报''[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter Newmark. (1991). ''About Translation'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15) <br />
<br />
According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. <br />
<br />
Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) <br />
<br />
Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. <br />
<br />
The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. <br />
<br />
The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. <br />
<br />
The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9) <br />
<br />
Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. <br />
<br />
He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. <br />
<br />
He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. <br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. <br />
<br />
The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation. <br />
<br />
First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153) <br />
<br />
Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. <br />
<br />
The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. <br />
<br />
In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3). <br />
<br />
He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. <br />
<br />
In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. <br />
<br />
His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28). <br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. <br />
<br />
The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. <br />
<br />
Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. <br />
<br />
There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. <br />
<br />
The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation. <br />
<br />
He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation. <br />
<br />
The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts. <br />
<br />
The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times. <br />
<br />
John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.<br />
<br />
He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.<br />
<br />
In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67). <br />
<br />
Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. <br />
<br />
They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. <br />
<br />
It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press]. <br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center> <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. <br />
<br />
From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44) <br />
<br />
Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
<br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.<br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.<br />
<br />
Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center> <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1), 172-173).<br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433). <br />
<br />
The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years'' (中国现代文学30年) and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019, 101-102).<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）, 92).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001, 134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).<br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011, 28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014, 611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', 1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.<br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102). <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).<br />
<br />
In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.<br />
<br />
Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.<br />
<br />
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.<br />
<br />
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces <br />
Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Literature Review====<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.<br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation". <br />
<br />
====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)<br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)<br />
<br />
After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)<br />
<br />
Example 2: "It was about five years after this."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"<br />
<br />
Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"<br />
<br />
It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"<br />
<br />
"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"<br />
<br />
The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "She was desire." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）<br />
<br />
Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"<br />
<br />
The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）<br />
<br />
From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis. <br />
<br />
The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.<br />
<br />
Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. <br />
<br />
In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. <br />
<br />
In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. <br />
<br />
Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. <br />
<br />
However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. <br />
<br />
In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. <br />
<br />
In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). <br />
<br />
Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词，翻译，交际--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Culture-loaded words; translation, communication--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.”<br />
<br />
===2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.”--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
<br />
<br />
====Classification of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. <br />
<br />
<br />
====Translatability of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. --[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words==<br />
<br />
====Differences in Worldview and Ideology====<br />
<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English.<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment====<br />
<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
<br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.3 Differences in Historical Culture====<br />
<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
<br />
<br />
====Differences in Religious Beliefs====<br />
<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region====<br />
<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture====<br />
<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment====<br />
<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
<br />
<br />
====4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
<br />
<br />
===5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
<br />
<br />
====5.1 Go-ahead Model====<br />
<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
<br />
<br />
====5.2 Block Model====<br />
<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
<br />
<br />
====5.3 Annotation Model====<br />
<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
====5.4 Integration Model====<br />
<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
<br />
<br />
====5.5 Adaption Model====<br />
<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. <br />
<br />
<br />
===6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations====<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words.<br />
<br />
====6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence====<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” <br />
<br />
<br />
====6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity====<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” --[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. <br />
<br />
Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
===7 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=118757History of Translation Studies 112020-12-21T14:51:55Z<p>Peng Dan: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
读翻译理论书籍有感<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Junping 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) <br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.<br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) <br />
<br />
This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
<br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) <br />
<br />
During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) <br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections on Translations Methods===<br />
<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) <br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
*Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
*Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education (03) 163-168.<br />
<br />
*Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-19. <br />
<br />
*Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science (02) 107-108. <br />
<br />
*Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 103-104.<br />
<br />
*Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide (09) 220-221.<br />
<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (04) 56-72.<br />
<br />
*Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
<br />
*Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (06) 4-10.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages (01) 53-59.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
*Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University (05) 60-63.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature (09) 100-101.<br />
<br />
*Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 103-107.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (08) 162-163.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square (05) 19-20.<br />
<br />
*Zhou Lingshun 周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (06) 13-18. <br />
<br />
*Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture (14) 99-100.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu 202070080625 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》 [''The Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》 [''Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》 [''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'' ]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House ]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Translation'' ].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation'' ]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角” [Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据” [The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探” [A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报 [Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong 朱晓东 and Ding Ting 丁婷. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture" [鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018) [2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. <br />
<br />
The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Keywords is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目 is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。<br />
<br />
理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. <br />
<br />
The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. <br />
<br />
In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” <br />
<br />
For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. <br />
<br />
What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. <br />
<br />
The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
<br />
<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. <br />
<br />
Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. <br />
<br />
As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
<br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. <br />
<br />
The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. <br />
<br />
From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. <br />
<br />
However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. <br />
<br />
Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
<br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. <br />
<br />
The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. <br />
<br />
Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. <br />
<br />
It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
<br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
<br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. <br />
<br />
When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. <br />
<br />
After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. <br />
<br />
But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
<br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.<br />
<br />
Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. <br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(<span style="color:red">practices</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. <br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). <br />
<br />
As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11). <br />
<br />
In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52). <br />
<br />
The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493). <br />
<br />
2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247). <br />
<br />
After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. <br />
<br />
In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. <br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(<span style="color:red">in</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 <br />
<br />
ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 <br />
<br />
ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. <br />
<br />
After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.<br />
<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 <br />
<br />
ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. <br />
<br />
In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 <br />
<br />
ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 <br />
<br />
ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. <br />
<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.<br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. <br />
<br />
The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
[1] Chen K., Yang F. F. Research on C-E Translation of Commercial Advertisement in Xi’an [J]. Education Research Frontier, 2019 (9: 1): 16-22.<br />
<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
<br />
[4] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
<br />
[5] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
<br />
[6] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
<br />
[7] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
<br />
[8] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
<br />
[10] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
<br />
[11] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
<br />
[15] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
<br />
[16] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
<br />
[17] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
<br />
[18] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
<br />
[19] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
<br />
[20] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
<br />
[21] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
<br />
[22] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
[23] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
<br />
[24] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
<br />
[25] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
[27] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
<br />
[28] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):104-108.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. <br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。<br />
<br />
刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's working process by using linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 55) <br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1987, 10-12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin 2011, 5)<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng 2010, 25)<br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell 1987, 3)<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell 1991, F30)<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 27-29)<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao 2008, 99-100)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell 1991, 4-5)<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell 1991, 14)<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell 1991, 11)<br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde 1991, 1)<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin 2011, 6)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell 1991, 37) <br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell 1991, 10)<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin 2005, 65)<br />
<br />
The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin 2011, 7)<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong 2003, 210)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell 1991, 7)<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 56)<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell 1997, 6-10)<br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin 2005, 64)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: <br />
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;<br />
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell 1991, 61)<br />
<br />
They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell 1991, 68)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1991, 70)<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng 2011, 9-13)<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 128)<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde 1988, 4-9)<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin 1996, 295-298)<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde 1996, 31-33)<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. <br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982. <br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993. <br />
<br />
Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'', he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of ''Ulysses'', we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). "<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
"A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style." (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
"In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159)."<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of ''Ulysses''. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In ''On Translation'': with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
"In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)"<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40)."<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of ''Ulysses''. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
"The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162)."<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). The real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida, 1998). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'' by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating ''Ulysses'' , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version ''Ulysses'' appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114)."<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's ''Ulysses'', he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译《尤利西斯》]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
===Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36) <br />
<br />
In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37) <br />
<br />
By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19) <br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53) <br />
<br />
In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)<br />
<br />
Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45) <br />
<br />
Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.<br />
<br />
Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23) <br />
<br />
The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64) <br />
<br />
However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100) <br />
<br />
Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process." The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)<br />
<br />
Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) <br />
<br />
Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)<br />
<br />
In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) <br />
<br />
For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. <br />
<br />
In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588 英语笔译== <br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213). <br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).<br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).<br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84). <br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.<br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, it can be seen that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)<br />
<br />
However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison===<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋, 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 许宝强, 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） <br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. <br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====Newmark====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Both Are Translatable=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Translation Theories=====<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===My Views on Their Theories===<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).''奈达论翻译'' [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). ''当代西方翻译理论探索''[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] ''文教资料''[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] ''漯河职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] ''黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] ''铜陵学院学报'' [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] ''陕西师范大学学报''[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter Newmark. (1991). ''About Translation'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15) <br />
<br />
According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. <br />
<br />
Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) <br />
<br />
Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. <br />
<br />
The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. <br />
<br />
The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. <br />
<br />
The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9) <br />
<br />
Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. <br />
<br />
He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. <br />
<br />
He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. <br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. <br />
<br />
The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation. <br />
<br />
First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153) <br />
<br />
Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. <br />
<br />
The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. <br />
<br />
In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3). <br />
<br />
He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. <br />
<br />
In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. <br />
<br />
His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28). <br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. <br />
<br />
The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. <br />
<br />
Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. <br />
<br />
There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. <br />
<br />
The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation. <br />
<br />
He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation. <br />
<br />
The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts. <br />
<br />
The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times. <br />
<br />
John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.<br />
<br />
He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.<br />
<br />
In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67). <br />
<br />
Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. <br />
<br />
They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. <br />
<br />
It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press]. <br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center> <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. <br />
<br />
From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44) <br />
<br />
Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
<br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.<br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.<br />
<br />
Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center> <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1), 172-173).<br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433). <br />
<br />
The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years'' (中国现代文学30年) and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019, 101-102).<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）, 92).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001, 134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).<br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011, 28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014, 611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', 1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.<br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102). <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).<br />
<br />
In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.<br />
<br />
Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.<br />
<br />
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.<br />
<br />
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces <br />
Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Literature Review====<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.<br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation". <br />
<br />
====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)<br />
<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)<br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)<br />
<br />
After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)<br />
<br />
Example 2: "It was about five years after this."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"<br />
<br />
Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"<br />
<br />
It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"<br />
<br />
"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"<br />
<br />
The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "She was desire." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）<br />
<br />
Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"<br />
<br />
The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）<br />
<br />
From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis. <br />
<br />
The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.<br />
<br />
Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. <br />
<br />
In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. <br />
<br />
In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. <br />
<br />
Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. <br />
<br />
However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. <br />
<br />
In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. <br />
<br />
In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). <br />
<br />
Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词，翻译，交际--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Culture-loaded words; translation, communication--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.”<br />
<br />
===2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.”--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
<br />
<br />
====Classification of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. <br />
<br />
<br />
====Translatability of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. --[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words==<br />
<br />
====Differences in Worldview and Ideology====<br />
<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English.<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment====<br />
<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
<br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.3 Differences in Historical Culture====<br />
<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
<br />
<br />
====Differences in Religious Beliefs====<br />
<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region====<br />
<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture====<br />
<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment====<br />
<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
<br />
<br />
====4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
<br />
<br />
===5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
<br />
<br />
====5.1 Go-ahead Model====<br />
<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
<br />
<br />
====5.2 Block Model====<br />
<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
<br />
<br />
====5.3 Annotation Model====<br />
<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
====5.4 Integration Model====<br />
<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
<br />
<br />
====5.5 Adaption Model====<br />
<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. <br />
<br />
<br />
===6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations====<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words.<br />
<br />
====6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence====<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” <br />
<br />
<br />
====6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity====<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” --[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. <br />
<br />
Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
<br />
<br />
===7 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=118749History of Translation Studies 112020-12-21T14:46:10Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
读翻译理论书籍有感<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Junping 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) <br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.<br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) <br />
<br />
This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
<br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) <br />
<br />
During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) <br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections on Translations Methods===<br />
<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) <br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
*Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
*Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education (03) 163-168.<br />
<br />
*Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-19. <br />
<br />
*Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science (02) 107-108. <br />
<br />
*Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 103-104.<br />
<br />
*Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide (09) 220-221.<br />
<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (04) 56-72.<br />
<br />
*Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
<br />
*Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (06) 4-10.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages (01) 53-59.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
*Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University (05) 60-63.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature (09) 100-101.<br />
<br />
*Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 103-107.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (08) 162-163.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square (05) 19-20.<br />
<br />
*Zhou Lingshun 周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (06) 13-18. <br />
<br />
*Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture (14) 99-100.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu 202070080625 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》 [''The Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》 [''Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》 [''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'' ]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House ]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Translation'' ].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation'' ]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角” [Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据” [The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探” [A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报 [Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong 朱晓东 and Ding Ting 丁婷. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture" [鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018) [2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. <br />
<br />
The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Keywords is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目 is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。<br />
<br />
理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. <br />
<br />
The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. <br />
<br />
In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” <br />
<br />
For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. <br />
<br />
What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. <br />
<br />
The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
<br />
<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. <br />
<br />
Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. <br />
<br />
As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
<br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. <br />
<br />
The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. <br />
<br />
From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. <br />
<br />
However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. <br />
<br />
Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
<br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. <br />
<br />
The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. <br />
<br />
Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. <br />
<br />
It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
<br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
<br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. <br />
<br />
When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. <br />
<br />
After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. <br />
<br />
But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
<br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.<br />
<br />
Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. <br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(<span style="color:red">practices</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. <br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). <br />
<br />
As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11). <br />
<br />
In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52). <br />
<br />
The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493). <br />
<br />
2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247). <br />
<br />
After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. <br />
<br />
In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. <br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(<span style="color:red">in</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 <br />
<br />
ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 <br />
<br />
ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. <br />
<br />
After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.<br />
<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 <br />
<br />
ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. <br />
<br />
In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 <br />
<br />
ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 <br />
<br />
ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. <br />
<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.<br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. <br />
<br />
The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
[1] Chen K., Yang F. F. Research on C-E Translation of Commercial Advertisement in Xi’an [J]. Education Research Frontier, 2019 (9: 1): 16-22.<br />
<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
<br />
[4] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
<br />
[5] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
<br />
[6] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
<br />
[7] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
<br />
[8] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
<br />
[10] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
<br />
[11] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
<br />
[15] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
<br />
[16] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
<br />
[17] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
<br />
[18] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
<br />
[19] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
<br />
[20] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
<br />
[21] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
<br />
[22] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
[23] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
<br />
[24] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
<br />
[25] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
[27] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
<br />
[28] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):104-108.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. <br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。<br />
<br />
刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's working process by using linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 55) <br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1987, 10-12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin 2011, 5)<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng 2010, 25)<br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell 1987, 3)<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell 1991, F30)<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 27-29)<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao 2008, 99-100)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell 1991, 4-5)<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell 1991, 14)<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell 1991, 11)<br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde 1991, 1)<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin 2011, 6)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell 1991, 37) <br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell 1991, 10)<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin 2005, 65)<br />
<br />
The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin 2011, 7)<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong 2003, 210)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell 1991, 7)<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 56)<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell 1997, 6-10)<br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin 2005, 64)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: <br />
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;<br />
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell 1991, 61)<br />
<br />
They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell 1991, 68)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1991, 70)<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng 2011, 9-13)<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 128)<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde 1988, 4-9)<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin 1996, 295-298)<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde 1996, 31-33)<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. <br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982. <br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993. <br />
<br />
Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'', he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of ''Ulysses'', we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). "<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
"A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style." (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
"In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159)."<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of ''Ulysses''. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In ''On Translation'': with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
"In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)"<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40)."<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of ''Ulysses''. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
"The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162)."<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). The real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida, 1998). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'' by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating ''Ulysses'' , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version ''Ulysses'' appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
"Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114)."<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's ''Ulysses'', he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译《尤利西斯》]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
===Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36) <br />
<br />
In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37) <br />
<br />
By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19) <br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53) <br />
<br />
In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)<br />
<br />
Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45) <br />
<br />
Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.<br />
<br />
Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23) <br />
<br />
The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64) <br />
<br />
However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100) <br />
<br />
Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process." The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)<br />
<br />
Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) <br />
<br />
Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)<br />
<br />
In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) <br />
<br />
For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. <br />
<br />
In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588 英语笔译== <br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213). <br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).<br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).<br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84). <br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.<br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, it can be seen that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)<br />
<br />
However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison===<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋, 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 许宝强, 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） <br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. <br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====Newmark====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Both Are Translatable=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Translation Theories=====<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===My Views on Their Theories===<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).''奈达论翻译'' [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). ''当代西方翻译理论探索''[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] ''文教资料''[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] ''漯河职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] ''黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] ''铜陵学院学报'' [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] ''陕西师范大学学报''[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter Newmark. (1991). ''About Translation'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15) <br />
<br />
According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. <br />
<br />
Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) <br />
<br />
Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. <br />
<br />
The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. <br />
<br />
The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. <br />
<br />
The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9) <br />
<br />
Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. <br />
<br />
He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. <br />
<br />
He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. <br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. <br />
<br />
The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation. <br />
<br />
First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153) <br />
<br />
Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. <br />
<br />
The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. <br />
<br />
In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3). <br />
<br />
He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. <br />
<br />
In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. <br />
<br />
His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28). <br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. <br />
<br />
The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. <br />
<br />
Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. <br />
<br />
There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. <br />
<br />
The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation. <br />
<br />
He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation. <br />
<br />
The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts. <br />
<br />
The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times. <br />
<br />
John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.<br />
<br />
He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.<br />
<br />
In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67). <br />
<br />
Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. <br />
<br />
They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. <br />
<br />
It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press]. <br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center> <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. <br />
<br />
From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44) <br />
<br />
Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
<br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.<br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.<br />
<br />
Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center> <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1), 172-173).<br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433). <br />
<br />
The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years'' (中国现代文学30年) and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019, 101-102).<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）, 92).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001, 134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).<br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011, 28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014, 611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', 1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.<br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102). <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).<br />
<br />
In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.<br />
<br />
Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.<br />
<br />
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.<br />
<br />
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces <br />
Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Literature Review====<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.<br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation". <br />
<br />
====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)<br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)<br />
<br />
After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)<br />
<br />
Example 2: "It was about five years after this."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"<br />
<br />
Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"<br />
<br />
It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"<br />
<br />
"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"<br />
<br />
The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "She was desire." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）<br />
<br />
Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"<br />
<br />
The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）<br />
<br />
From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis. <br />
<br />
The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.<br />
<br />
Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. <br />
<br />
In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. <br />
<br />
In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. <br />
<br />
Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. <br />
<br />
However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. <br />
<br />
In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. <br />
<br />
In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). <br />
<br />
Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=116425History of Translation Studies 112020-12-20T10:55:11Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI ==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this chapter gives a detailed overview on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this chapter makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this chapter argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the discipline construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) While, translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the grammer rule of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. Through translation practices, people summarize principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choosing of words and sentences and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present an all-round explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) <br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and full understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining and guiding social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, its external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.<br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) <br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theories came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards being systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church was hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero from the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the stylistic characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, a representative of translators during this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There were also many representatives in this period. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) They are: the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of the development of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in the process of translation. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. Firstly, do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while secondly, make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation proposed by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation, and making elaborations on them. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) <br />
<br />
During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
During this period, translations in commerce circles, diplomatic affairs, science and technology and other professional fields witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theories emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is the "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages in many aspects instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and he also discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theories. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Being different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods were profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, translation theories in this period were practical.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward the concept of "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great deal of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the same meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theories are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of human. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation to this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between China and West in their translation histories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) <br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the differences in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures have always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarities between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarities between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents to be similar with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides are independent from each other, but they share some commonalities. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions to convey the content of the source language,which the target reader is accustomed to. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the foreign language features, and absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be used separately. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original texts, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
This chapter holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarities between them have drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose requirements on the translator in three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equal to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated the importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. Therefore, Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a complete representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, the English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions of the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should accurately reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the differences between Chinese and Western way of thinking are universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of translation experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own laws of development, which is proved by the similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this chapter proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation system, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences are more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and highlight the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to rotten apples. As for previous methods, once there was anywhere rotten in an apple, people would discard it completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also be taken into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from “the survival of the fittest” advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese, and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change the original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and in vernacular Chinese with translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first (to march to a different drummer)? and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
u Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation， as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that to enlighten Chinese people and to save the old China by learning from foreign literary works, promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
(这里可以分两段)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. <br />
<br />
The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Keywords is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目 is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。<br />
<br />
理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. <br />
<br />
The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. <br />
<br />
In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” <br />
<br />
For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. <br />
<br />
What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. <br />
<br />
The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
<br />
<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. <br />
<br />
Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. <br />
<br />
As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
<br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. <br />
<br />
The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. <br />
<br />
From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. <br />
<br />
However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. <br />
<br />
Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
<br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. <br />
<br />
The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. <br />
<br />
Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. <br />
<br />
It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
<br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
<br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. <br />
<br />
When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. <br />
<br />
After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. <br />
<br />
But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
<br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.<br />
<br />
Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. <br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(<span style="color:red">practices</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. <br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), researches(<span style="color:red">studies</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). <br />
<br />
As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction(<span style="color:red">directions</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11). <br />
<br />
In order to provide some new(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text(<span style="color:red">texts</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52). <br />
<br />
The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort(<span style="color:red">efforts</span>), Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a(<span style="color:red">an essential</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features(<span style="color:red">language features of subtitle translation</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493). <br />
<br />
2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>) films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247). <br />
<br />
After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather(<span style="color:red">''Western Leather''</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However(<span style="color:red">Moreover</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles(<span style="color:red">principle</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze(<span style="color:red">analyzes them</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, (<span style="color:red">focusing on</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. <br />
<br />
In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece(<span style="color:red">masterpieces</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine(<span style="color:red">Ihe company</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere (<span style="color:red">in the world</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. <br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions(<span style="color:red">, key points of Eco-translatology theory</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC).<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically(<span style="color:red">grammatical</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(<span style="color:red">in</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 <br />
<br />
ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse(<span style="color:red">various</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
From the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay (<span style="color:red">pay s[ecial</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference(<span style="color:red">differences</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC) or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 <br />
<br />
ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. <br />
<br />
After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.<br />
<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary (<span style="color:red">achievements</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that (<span style="color:red">people or</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 <br />
<br />
ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, (<span style="color:red">which is</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad(<span style="color:red">broader</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or (<span style="color:red">or an</span>) enterprise--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. <br />
<br />
In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information (<span style="color:red">information above</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 <br />
<br />
ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a (<span style="color:red">an advertising video promoting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples(<span style="color:red">in the video</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 <br />
<br />
ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated(<span style="color:red">target</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. <br />
<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) conduct(<span style="color:red">conducting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.<br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. <br />
<br />
The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
[1] Chen K., Yang F. F. Research on C-E Translation of Commercial Advertisement in Xi’an [J]. Education Research Frontier, 2019 (9: 1): 16-22.<br />
<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
<br />
[4] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
<br />
[5] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
<br />
[6] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
<br />
[7] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
<br />
[8] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
<br />
[10] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
<br />
[11] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
<br />
[15] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
<br />
[16] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
<br />
[17] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
<br />
[18] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
<br />
[19] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
<br />
[20] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
<br />
[21] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
<br />
[22] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
[23] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
<br />
[24] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
<br />
[25] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
[27] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
<br />
[28] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress.However, as an important part of translation research, the history of translation theory is far less important than that of translation theory and translation technology. (Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But translation has historical characteristics. In studying translation, it is necessary to examine translation activities in the long river of human history in order to find more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you must understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation theory was born after the Zhou Dynasty came into contact with the client state.It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian 's preface is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi, responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss.<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric.<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section.<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties.<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven". Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other" would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant and plain. With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording". For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning". A good translator should "strive to preserve the original". (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names".This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables. or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani, Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree, which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi.<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana instead of "wisdom" (Chen Fukang 1996,325)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, Sanyitang was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western research gradually progressed eastward, and translation became more active.By this time, however, the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but the history of astronomy, geometry, medicine, and Chinese translation in Europe has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals were painfully learning from the West, and translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation returned to ancient times.The rise of Chinese new literature cannot be separated from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance, which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity, smoothness and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth". (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit, appearance and manner are the same as before (the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome. His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase：or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase： or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation：where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) --[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) --[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
Although，the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, <br />
Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between different regions and different languages and promoted the development of human civilization.The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. <br />
<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories are useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references from the practice of translation theories.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。<br />
<br />
刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) <br />
<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing on the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation into the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorist, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation ideals proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art are influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that to one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed for the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation theory, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understands what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different to study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)<br />
<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation into the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examine the process of the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process of cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate about three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation are faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference between their time and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conducting linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one that doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful of this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)<br />
<br />
Bell conforms to the definition of regarding translation as "the expression of another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product of paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even in the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)<br />
<br />
As proposed in to the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definitions of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither delete nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) <br />
<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation are his efforts of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy about this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories about reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation methods. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy for words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impairs the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell brings in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent to different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: <br />
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;<br />
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell,1991:61)<br />
<br />
They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell,1991:68)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intends to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas about the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently conveying the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how styles influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later are profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same functions so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest in the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in the process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of translation. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks translation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free translation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose of Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is trying to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believes that the judgement should be made by translators, translator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetry which is faithful to the original text.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. <br />
<br />
By comprising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also applies psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation processes remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982. <br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993. <br />
<br />
Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 (<span style="color:red"> 加专业 </span>)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses (''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses(''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses(<span style="color:red">''Ulysses''</span>). His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation(<span style="color:red">''On Translation''</span>): with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, (<span style="color:red">'' 论文中应该避免用 In my opinion 这样的表达''</span>)the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
(<span style="color:red">'' [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]''</span>)<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35) <br />
<br />
Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36) <br />
<br />
In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37) <br />
<br />
By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19) <br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)<br />
<br />
Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45) <br />
<br />
Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23) <br />
<br />
The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64) <br />
<br />
However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100) <br />
<br />
Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
<br />
Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)<br />
<br />
Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) <br />
<br />
Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) <br />
<br />
For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. <br />
<br />
In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588== <br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213). <br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (信), expressiveness (达) and elegance (雅). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).<br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).<br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84). <br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.<br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles of Translation”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history.(You may change the word "profound" into "long".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style.(You may change this sentence into "In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is.")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients,…….(You may change this sentence into "On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advoted the ancients,……".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)<br />
<br />
However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking.(You may change the word "relationhsip" into "relation".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler…….(Here, you may change the word "times" into "era".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
[Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
[ Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] 上海:上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical researcher and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） --[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida published a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tried to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attached much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he didn't regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then pointed out that in translation, there were four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese because it . Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. <br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated as“黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese because it . Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. --[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Newmark====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of researches on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to the real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Both Are Translatable=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
In his ''About Translation'', Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010,41)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010,41-42)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006,108)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What's more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006,108)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later put forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he found that translation was mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text was adjusted and changed, there would be under translation. If the metaphor was converted or not translated, there would be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.(The quote and source is missing--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，88）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Different Translation Theories=====<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 107)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006,107)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006,107)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006,107)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 107)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，89）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，89）--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===My Views on Their Theories===<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the ''Bible''. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the ''Bible'' in English. But if you don't understand their symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 17:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991). About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15) <br />
<br />
According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. <br />
<br />
Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) <br />
<br />
Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. <br />
<br />
The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. <br />
<br />
The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. <br />
<br />
The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9) <br />
<br />
Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. <br />
<br />
He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. <br />
<br />
He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. <br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. <br />
<br />
The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation. <br />
<br />
First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153) <br />
<br />
Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. <br />
<br />
The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. <br />
<br />
In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3). <br />
<br />
He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. <br />
<br />
In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. <br />
<br />
His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28). <br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. <br />
<br />
The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. <br />
<br />
Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. <br />
<br />
There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. <br />
<br />
The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation. <br />
<br />
He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation. <br />
<br />
The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts. <br />
<br />
The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times. <br />
<br />
John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.<br />
<br />
He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.<br />
<br />
In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67). <br />
<br />
Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.<br />
<br />
ames Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. <br />
<br />
They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. <br />
<br />
It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press]. <br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center> '''专业'''<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. （'''分段'''）<br />
<br />
From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.（'''引用来源'''）<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. （'''分段'''）<br />
<br />
Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through （'''改为breaking through of'''）the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. ('''分段''')<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in （in改为to）his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed（'''改为points'''） out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. （'''改为 what translation is'''）Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.（'''分段'''）--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning.（'''改为meanings'''） The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand ('''改为misunderstood''')Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey （'''加the'''）content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry,（'''such as 后面至少跟两个例子'''） the original form should be retained as far as possible.--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes （'''改为include'''）phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. ('''分段''')<br />
<br />
Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford （'''后加"'"'''）translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, <br />
namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially.（'''分段'''）--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are ('''改为were''')prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds（'''改为held'''） that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader('''改为reader's''') response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. ('''分段''')--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies（'''改为applied'''） to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers（'''改为referred'''） to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.（'''分段'''）<br />
<br />
Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore,（'''改为Hence, Consequently 或 Accordingly'''） Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages.（'''分段'''） --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning（'''改为meanings'''） or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced('''改为introduces''') a new view,（'''改为viewpoint'''） that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for('''改为towards''') translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped（'''改为jumps'''） out of the bondage of language and instead （'''改为instead of paying'''）paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary（'''一般位于句首'''） have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' （'''缺少谓语，加 is'''）to educate and influence people and make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.（'''分段'''） <br />
--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As（'''改为as'''） soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is（'''改为was'''） brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are（'''改为were'''） simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment.（'''分段'''）--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.（'''分段'''） --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center> <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1),172-173).<br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433). <br />
<br />
The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019,101-102).<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）,92).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001,134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).<br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011,28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014,611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation. (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.<br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102). <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).<br />
<br />
In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''<br />
<br />
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.<br />
<br />
Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.<br />
<br />
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.<br />
<br />
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces <br />
Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Literature Review====<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.<br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation". <br />
<br />
====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)<br />
<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)<br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)<br />
<br />
After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)<br />
<br />
Example 2: "It was about five years after this."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"<br />
<br />
Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"<br />
<br />
It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"<br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"<br />
<br />
"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"<br />
<br />
The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）<br />
<br />
Example 2: "She was desire." <br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）<br />
<br />
Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"<br />
<br />
The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."<br />
<br />
Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。" <br />
<br />
Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）<br />
<br />
From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis. <br />
<br />
The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.<br />
<br />
Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. <br />
<br />
In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. <br />
<br />
In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. <br />
<br />
Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. <br />
<br />
However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. <br />
<br />
In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. <br />
<br />
In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). <br />
<br />
Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=116016History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T15:35:05Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 2.1 Words of Historical Allusions */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as "A Dream of Red Mansions ". There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is "a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad ".(Venuti 1995,20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the "violent" domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as "boycott ", is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti 1995,20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the cultural loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of dishes and the allusion of the founder. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implied knowledge of Chinese cultural background and has far-reaching significance for promoting the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling 2005,229)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br />
<br />
It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and said that according to the order of the Jade Emperor, the Vulcan would burn down Chang'an (the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th day of the first lunar month.(Xu 2005,230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu 2005,230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be translated directly into "YUANXIAO", because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners and even friends abroad. Most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics can be realized by means of alienation. This translation method preserves our national language style.(Xu 2005,232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to stimulate their understanding of the story and historical background behind the food when tasting it. For those historical allusions and cultural load words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with profound Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan 2005,92)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu 2005,92)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a food that once saved the emperor)", which not only retains the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the appeal of diners to the stories behind food and food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think what kind of food can save the emperor? This is incredible. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu 2005,93)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness of Jiangnan. There was a Jiaohuazi (a beggar) who kindly gave him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji ". Hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was delicious, asked Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know the name, so he said "rich chicken" casually.(Xu Xianling 2005,232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu 2005,234)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu 2005,234)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang 2008,54)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish belly, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "Family photo" is often used to celebrate the old people's birthday and wedding banquet, family reunion, and even baby full moon banquet, so we can translate it into "family gift" to express auspicious meaning.(Xu 2005,35)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu 2005,36)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
It can be translated as :" Lidong, the beginning of winter, is the day of worship of Dionysus ." In this version, Lidong is one of the 24 solar terms of the folk calendar, and the alienated translation version of Lidong is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated into "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because Shaoxing wine god is Yidi.(Zhang 2008,58)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mentioning the Chinese people's image of food beauty, food environment beauty, food utensils beauty, food aroma, but also listed the name, voice, beauty and other aesthetic demands. Especially the naming methods of various dishes, such as color, flowers and so on.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu 2005,36)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi 2002,153)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao 2002,153)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene 1969,13)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017,75)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu 2008,99)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan 2003,12)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu 2003,12)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu 2003,15）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu 2003,15）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu 2008,69)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu 2003,16)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Translation of literary works plays a determining role in spreading culture, among which culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
This paper, guided by the three rules of Skopos theory, make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Nida's classified approaches to culture. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. In conclusion, this paper provides certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works and provides evidence that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in the translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。文学作品的翻译对文化传播起着决定性的作用，文化负载词作为文学作品的重要组成部分，其翻译工作常常面临诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。总的来说，本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义，并佐证了目的论对于文化负载词的翻译具有指导意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of economic globalization. Literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading Chinese culture, among which a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable one is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper intends to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory, which was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s, so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, it emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English and was highly appreciated by many scholars out of his in-depth affection for the work,his proficiency in both Chinese and English language, and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. <br />
<br />
==== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang ==== <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
==== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version ==== <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature about Ming and Qing dynasties. Differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, 119).--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words ==== <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation lies in the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
==== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopted the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used was so sophisticated that even some local people could not understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, applying this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also makes them more familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
==== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies ==== <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translator<br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As what mentioned above, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which laid a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Readership<br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
3.3.3 Translation Purpose<br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=116012History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T15:33:23Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as "A Dream of Red Mansions ". There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is "a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad ".(Venuti 1995,20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the "violent" domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as "boycott ", is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti 1995,20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the cultural loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of dishes and the allusion of the founder. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implied knowledge of Chinese cultural background and has far-reaching significance for promoting the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling 2005,229)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and said that according to the order of the Jade Emperor, the Vulcan would burn down Chang'an (the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th day of the first lunar month.(Xu 2005,230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu 2005,230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be translated directly into "YUANXIAO", because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners and even friends abroad. Most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics can be realized by means of alienation. This translation method preserves our national language style.(Xu 2005,232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to stimulate their understanding of the story and historical background behind the food when tasting it. For those historical allusions and cultural load words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with profound Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan 2005,92)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu 2005,92)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a food that once saved the emperor)", which not only retains the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the appeal of diners to the stories behind food and food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think what kind of food can save the emperor? This is incredible. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu 2005,93)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness of Jiangnan. There was a Jiaohuazi (a beggar) who kindly gave him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji ". Hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was delicious, asked Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know the name, so he said "rich chicken" casually.(Xu Xianling 2005,232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu 2005,234)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu 2005,234)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang 2008,54)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish belly, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "Family photo" is often used to celebrate the old people's birthday and wedding banquet, family reunion, and even baby full moon banquet, so we can translate it into "family gift" to express auspicious meaning.(Xu 2005,35)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu 2005,36)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
It can be translated as :" Lidong, the beginning of winter, is the day of worship of Dionysus ." In this version, Lidong is one of the 24 solar terms of the folk calendar, and the alienated translation version of Lidong is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated into "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because Shaoxing wine god is Yidi.(Zhang 2008,58)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mentioning the Chinese people's image of food beauty, food environment beauty, food utensils beauty, food aroma, but also listed the name, voice, beauty and other aesthetic demands. Especially the naming methods of various dishes, such as color, flowers and so on.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu 2005,36)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi 2002,153)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao 2002,153)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene 1969,13)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017,75)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu 2008,99)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan 2003,12)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu 2003,12)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu 2003,15）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu 2003,15）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu 2008,69)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu 2003,16)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Translation of literary works plays a determining role in spreading culture, among which culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
This paper, guided by the three rules of Skopos theory, make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Nida's classified approaches to culture. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. In conclusion, this paper provides certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works and provides evidence that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in the translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。文学作品的翻译对文化传播起着决定性的作用，文化负载词作为文学作品的重要组成部分，其翻译工作常常面临诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。总的来说，本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义，并佐证了目的论对于文化负载词的翻译具有指导意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of economic globalization. Literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading Chinese culture, among which a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable one is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper intends to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory, which was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s, so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, it emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English and was highly appreciated by many scholars out of his in-depth affection for the work,his proficiency in both Chinese and English language, and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. <br />
<br />
==== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang ==== <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
==== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version ==== <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature about Ming and Qing dynasties. Differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, 119).--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words ==== <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation lies in the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
==== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopted the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used was so sophisticated that even some local people could not understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, applying this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also makes them more familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
==== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies ==== <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translator<br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As what mentioned above, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which laid a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Readership<br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
3.3.3 Translation Purpose<br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=115994History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T15:15:38Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as "A Dream of Red Mansions ". There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is "a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad ".(Venuti,1995: 20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the "violent" domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as "boycott ", is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti,1995: 20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the cultural loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of dishes and the allusion of the founder. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implied knowledge of Chinese cultural background and has far-reaching significance for promoting the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br />
<br />
It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and said that according to the order of the Jade Emperor, the Vulcan would burn down Chang'an (the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th day of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be translated directly into "YUANXIAO", because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners and even friends abroad. Most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics can be realized by means of alienation. This translation method preserves our national language style.(Xu, 2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to stimulate their understanding of the story and historical background behind the food when tasting it. For those historical allusions and cultural load words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with profound Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a food that once saved the emperor)", which not only retains the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the appeal of diners to the stories behind food and food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think what kind of food can save the emperor? This is incredible. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness of Jiangnan. There was a Jiaohuazi (a beggar) who kindly gave him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji ". Hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was delicious, asked Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know the name, so he said "rich chicken" casually.(Xu Xianling,2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish belly, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "Family photo" is often used to celebrate the old people's birthday and wedding banquet, family reunion, and even baby full moon banquet, so we can translate it into "family gift" to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
It can be translated as :" Lidong, the beginning of winter, is the day of worship of Dionysus ." In this version, Lidong is one of the 24 solar terms of the folk calendar, and the alienated translation version of Lidong is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated into "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because Shaoxing wine god is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mentioning the Chinese people's image of food beauty, food environment beauty, food utensils beauty, food aroma, but also listed the name, voice, beauty and other aesthetic demands. Especially the naming methods of various dishes, such as color, flowers and so on.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu 2005,36)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Translation of literary works plays a determining role in spreading culture, among which culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
This paper, guided by the three rules of Skopos theory, make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Nida's classified approaches to culture. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. In conclusion, this paper provides certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works and provides evidence that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in the translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。文学作品的翻译对文化传播起着决定性的作用，文化负载词作为文学作品的重要组成部分，其翻译工作常常面临诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。总的来说，本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义，并佐证了目的论对于文化负载词的翻译具有指导意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of economic globalization. Literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading Chinese culture, among which a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable one is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper intends to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory, which was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s, so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, it emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English and was highly appreciated by many scholars out of his in-depth affection for the work,his proficiency in both Chinese and English language, and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. <br />
<br />
==== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang ==== <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
==== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version ==== <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature about Ming and Qing dynasties. Differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, 119).--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words ==== <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation lies in the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
==== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopted the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used was so sophisticated that even some local people could not understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, applying this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also makes them more familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
==== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies ==== <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translator<br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As what mentioned above, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which laid a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Readership<br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
3.3.3 Translation Purpose<br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=115987History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T15:05:24Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 2.2 Words of Local Customs */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as "A Dream of Red Mansions ". There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is "a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad ".(Venuti,1995: 20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the "violent" domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as "boycott ", is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti,1995: 20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the cultural loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of dishes and the allusion of the founder. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implied knowledge of Chinese cultural background and has far-reaching significance for promoting the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br />
<br />
It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and said that according to the order of the Jade Emperor, the Vulcan would burn down Chang'an (the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th day of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be translated directly into "YUANXIAO", because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners and even friends abroad. Most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics can be realized by means of alienation. This translation method preserves our national language style.(Xu, 2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to stimulate their understanding of the story and historical background behind the food when tasting it. For those historical allusions and cultural load words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with profound Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a food that once saved the emperor)", which not only retains the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the appeal of diners to the stories behind food and food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think what kind of food can save the emperor? This is incredible. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness of Jiangnan. There was a Jiaohuazi (a beggar) who kindly gave him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji ". Hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was delicious, asked Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know the name, so he said "rich chicken" casually.(Xu Xianling,2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish belly, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "Family photo" is often used to celebrate the old people's birthday and wedding banquet, family reunion, and even baby full moon banquet, so we can translate it into "family gift" to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
It can be translated as :" Lidong, the beginning of winter, is the day of worship of Dionysus ." In this version, Lidong is one of the 24 solar terms of the folk calendar, and the alienated translation version of Lidong is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated into "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because Shaoxing wine god is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Translation of literary works plays a determining role in spreading culture, among which culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
This paper, guided by the three rules of Skopos theory, make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Nida's classified approaches to culture. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. In conclusion, this paper provides certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works and provides evidence that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in the translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。文学作品的翻译对文化传播起着决定性的作用，文化负载词作为文学作品的重要组成部分，其翻译工作常常面临诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。总的来说，本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义，并佐证了目的论对于文化负载词的翻译具有指导意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of economic globalization. Literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading Chinese culture, among which a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable one is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper intends to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory, which was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s, so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, it emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English and was highly appreciated by many scholars out of his in-depth affection for the work,his proficiency in both Chinese and English language, and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. <br />
<br />
==== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang ==== <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
==== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version ==== <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature about Ming and Qing dynasties. Differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, 119).--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
==== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words ==== <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation lies in the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
==== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory ==== <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopted the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used was so sophisticated that even some local people could not understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, applying this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also makes them more familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
==== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies ==== <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before.<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translator<br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As what mentioned above, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which laid a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Readership<br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
3.3.3 Translation Purpose<br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=115890History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T14:01:30Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 2.2 Words of Local Customs */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as "A Dream of Red Mansions ". There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is "a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad ".(Venuti,1995: 20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the "violent" domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as "boycott ", is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti,1995: 20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the cultural loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of dishes and the allusion of the founder. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implied knowledge of Chinese cultural background and has far-reaching significance for promoting the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br />
<br />
It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and said that according to the order of the Jade Emperor, the Vulcan would burn down Chang'an (the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th day of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be translated directly into "YUANXIAO", because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners and even friends abroad. Most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics can be realized by means of alienation. This translation method preserves our national language style.(Xu, 2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to stimulate their understanding of the story and historical background behind the food when tasting it. For those historical allusions and cultural load words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with profound Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a food that once saved the emperor)", which not only retains the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the appeal of diners to the stories behind food and food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think what kind of food can save the emperor? This is incredible. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness of Jiangnan. There was a Jiaohuazi (a beggar) who kindly gave him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji ". Hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was delicious, asked Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know the name, so he said "rich chicken" casually.(Xu Xianling,2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish belly, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "Family photo" is often used to celebrate the old people's birthday and wedding banquet, family reunion, and even baby full moon banquet, so we can translate it into "family gift" to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
It can be translated as :" Lidong, the beginning of winter, is the day of worship of Dionysus ." In this version, Lidong is one of the 24 solar terms of the folk calendar, and the alienated translation version of Lidong is intriguing. "酒神" is usually translated as "Bacchus" or" Dionysus", is Western Bacchus and Dionysus." in English The translation of "wine god" into "wine worship god ", because Shaoxing wine god is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=115824History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T13:35:01Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as "A Dream of Red Mansions ". There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is "a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad ".(Venuti,1995: 20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the "violent" domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as "boycott ", is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti,1995: 20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the cultural loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of dishes and the allusion of the founder. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implied knowledge of Chinese cultural background and has far-reaching significance for promoting the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br />
<br />
It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and said that according to the order of the Jade Emperor, the Vulcan would burn down Chang'an (the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th day of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be translated directly into "YUANXIAO", because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners and even friends abroad. Most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics can be realized by means of alienation. This translation method preserves our national language style.(Xu, 2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to stimulate their understanding of the story and historical background behind the food when tasting it. For those historical allusions and cultural load words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with profound Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a food that once saved the emperor)", which not only retains the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the appeal of diners to the stories behind food and food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think what kind of food can save the emperor? This is incredible. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (XuXianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness of Jiangnan. There was a Jiaohuazi (a beggar) who kindly gave him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji ". Hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was delicious, asked Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know the name, so he said "rich chicken" casually.(Xu Xianling,2005:232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=115784History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T13:16:34Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as "A Dream of Red Mansions ". There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is "a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad ".(Venuti,1995: 20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the "violent" domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as "boycott ", is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti,1995: 20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (Xu Xianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=115758History of Translation Studies 122020-12-19T12:56:34Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin */</p>
<hr />
<div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<center> 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
<br />
中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
“食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br />
<br />
=== 1.Introduction ===<br />
Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br />
Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br />
<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br />
<br />
During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be "an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".(Venuti,1995: 20) <br />
<br />
It is"highly desirable", he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the "violently" domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms "resistancy" is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br />
<br />
In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br />
<br />
=== 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br />
<br />
Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br />
<br />
For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br />
<br />
This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br />
<br />
The historical allusions in Chinese "food" culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br />
<br />
Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br />
<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br />
<br />
The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br />
<br />
Cultural words such as "Yuanxiao" formed by historical figures can be directly translated into "YUANXIAO" in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br />
<br />
In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br />
<br />
Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br />
<br />
“The famous dim sum "Dajiujia" in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br />
<br />
At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br />
<br />
Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: "The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life." And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the "Da Jiujia" of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br />
<br />
We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br />
<br />
Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br />
<br />
According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best "Jiaohuaji". Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said "rich chicken" casually. (Xu Xianling,2005:232)<br />
<br />
After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the "rich chicken", so "Jiaohuaji" has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br />
In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br />
<br />
Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br />
<br />
In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of "food" show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br />
<br />
Such as: eating "重阳糕," the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into "Double-ninth Cake".(Zhang,2008:54.)<br />
<br />
In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br />
<br />
"清汤全家福" is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. "全家福" is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br />
<br />
For example, the "合欢汤" mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into "happy-reunrion soup"。 "happy-reunion" not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br />
<br />
For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br />
<br />
It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, "Lidong" is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version "Lidong" is intriguing. "酒神" is generally translated as "Bacchus" or "Dionysus" in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation "请酒神" is translated into "worship the god of wine" because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br />
<br />
The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br />
<br />
The food aesthetics of Chinese "food" culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article "''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''".<br />
<br />
In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of "true to the name", and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br />
<br />
For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In "food" culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br />
<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br />
<br />
This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br />
<br />
The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br />
<br />
The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br />
<br />
Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br />
<br />
“1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the "Jade" of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br />
<br />
2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as "Osmanthus scallops".(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br />
<br />
After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br />
<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br />
<br />
In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of "food" culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of "food" culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Method ====<br />
<br />
First, the choice of translation of "food" culture-loaded words should also "kick out the old and welcome the new". Of course, the "old" here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br />
<br />
In addition, the development of "food" culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br />
<br />
Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br />
<br />
Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br />
<br />
Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br />
<br />
“Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br />
<br />
In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
<br />
Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation System ====<br />
<br />
We need to form a systematic translation system of "food" culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br />
<br />
Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to "food" in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br />
<br />
Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br />
<br />
In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br />
<br />
As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br />
<br />
The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br />
<br />
Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br />
<br />
====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br />
<br />
The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of "food" culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br />
<br />
Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br />
<br />
However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br />
<br />
It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br />
<br />
This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a "translation style". (Xu, 2008:69))<br />
<br />
Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br />
<br />
Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br />
<br />
At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br />
<br />
Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
=== 4. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, "food" culture is even more prominent.<br />
<br />
Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br />
<br />
The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br />
<br />
In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid "food" culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br />
<br />
In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br />
<br />
To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br />
<br />
=== 5. References ===<br />
<br />
*Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
*Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)"A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture" 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)"A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication" 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)"Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective"从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)"Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication"翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)"Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization"中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br />
<br />
*Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)"Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation" 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br />
<br />
*Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)"Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture" 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br />
<br />
*Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)"Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes"中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br />
<br />
*谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br />
<br />
*蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br />
<br />
*杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br />
<br />
*黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br />
<br />
*邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br />
<br />
*梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br />
<br />
*孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br />
<br />
== Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br />
释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br />
<br />
China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br />
<br />
Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br />
<br />
The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br />
<br />
It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br />
<br />
The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br />
<br />
This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be "high skilled" in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as "To forge iron, you need a strong hammer". “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not "strong" even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br />
<br />
The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
(这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br />
<br />
By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
(1)Three-character Structure<br />
<br />
A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br />
<br />
At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: "共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画". The term "工笔画" refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
(2)Four-character Structure<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the term "four-character structure" is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian & Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that "a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned". Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br />
<br />
(3) Idioms<br />
<br />
Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br />
<br />
(4) Poetry<br />
<br />
Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br />
<br />
(5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br />
<br />
Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br />
<br />
（1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br />
<br />
"Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication." (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br />
<br />
（2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br />
<br />
The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br />
<br />
（3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br />
<br />
Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, "Belt and Road", the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal translation====<br />
<br />
A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br />
<br />
Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "河海不择细流，故能就其深" refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of "河海" and "细流" in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br />
<br />
Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "一诺千金" is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br />
<br />
Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br />
<br />
Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br />
<br />
Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Semantic Interpretation====<br />
<br />
Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase "not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other" is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of "Taiwan" corresponds directly to "stage". （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br />
<br />
Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br />
<br />
Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase "四处碰壁" is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as "get nowhere", allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br />
<br />
Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br />
<br />
Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means "to win with little effort by clever force". The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression "accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers", but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of "well-leveraged" means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br />
<br />
Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br />
<br />
Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "物之不齐，物之情也" is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br />
<br />
Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br />
<br />
Analysis: The saying "万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成" is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, "本" and "道" have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br />
<br />
The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br />
<br />
括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br />
<br />
In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br />
<br />
Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br />
<br />
Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br />
<br />
Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br />
<br />
Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br />
<br />
Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br />
<br />
Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this case, "政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通" is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word "通" in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely "policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart", to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br />
<br />
Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br />
<br />
===Conferences===<br />
Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br />
<br />
Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. (2001) "释意学派口笔译理论"[Interpretation and translation theory of the interpretive school]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 4-5<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2002). “当代西方翻译理论探索”. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 232<br />
<br />
Xu Lishen.许力生. (2004). “跨文化交流入门”. [Intercultural Communication]. 浙江大学出版社[Zhe Jiang University Press] 34<br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi. 许钧,袁筱一编著. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论. [Contemporary Translation Studies in France]. 南京大学出版社[Nanjing Universary Press] 193<br />
<br />
Xu Ju. 许钧. (2001). 文学翻译的理论与实践. [Theory and Practice of Literary Translation]. 译林出版社[Yi Lin Press] 178<br />
<br />
Sun Xianmei. 孙宪梅. (2019). 试论跨文化交际中汉语负载词的翻译[A Study on the Translation of Chinese Loaded Words in Cross-cultural Communication]. 才智[Ability And Wisdom ] 209 <br />
<br />
LI Ying. 李莹. (2017). 释意论视阈下文化负载词汉英翻译——以中国领导人重要会议口译同传为例. [A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br />
<br />
Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br />
<br />
Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second "Belt and Road" International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br />
<br />
===Website Links of the speeches===<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br />
<br />
Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br />
<br />
<center>刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br />
Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of "firming cultural confidence", aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br />
<br />
Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization."（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should "promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br />
<br />
【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. "The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities."（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that "people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization "（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of "total reversion" and the blind inferiority of "total westernization", and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br />
<br />
However, "cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world "(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''"'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br />
<br />
'''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:"...."'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, "Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history" (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br />
<br />
To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br />
<br />
====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
<br />
Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br />
【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as "一带一路," "新常态," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.<br />
<br />
Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include "佛祖"， "菩萨," and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, "竹篮打水——一场空" and "八仙过海，各显神通" are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br />
<br />
Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成了两段~】<br />
<br />
Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that "what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another" is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br />
<br />
For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br />
<br />
Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br />
<br />
Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
【分成两段了~】<br />
<br />
In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br />
<br />
===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': "Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows".(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br />
<br />
Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br />
<br />
====Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br />
<br />
Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br />
<br />
'''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
“Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br />
<br />
Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br />
<br />
English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words "The book of" has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br />
<br />
However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br />
<br />
In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Paraphrasing====<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br />
<br />
This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be "similar in appearance but not in spirit", but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br />
<br />
Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br />
<br />
English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br />
<br />
Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Free Translation====<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Let's look at another example:<br />
<br />
Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br />
<br />
English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words "豺狼虎豹" into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?" The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br />
<br />
All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br />
<br />
At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br />
<br />
But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
*Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br />
<br />
*Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
*Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
*Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一. Theories of Contemporary Western Translation [M]当代西方翻译理论探索[M]，Jiangsu: Yilin Publishing House, 2000.江苏：译林出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
*Aixela, J. F. (1996). Culture-specific items in translation. In R. Alvarez & M. C. Vidal (Eds.). Translation.<br />
<br />
*Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼 English Cultural Loading Words and Chinese Translation[J],英语文化负载词及汉译[J], Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 2006(01):126-130.<br />
西南农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2006(01):126-130. <br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. E.J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
*Eugene Nida. Language Structure and Translation[M]. Standford University Press, 1975<br />
<br />
*Peter Newmark. Approaches to Translation[M]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981<br />
<br />
*Qiu Mao-Ru.邱懋如. Translation and zero translation[J].可译性及零翻译[J]. China Translation, 2001(01):24-27.中国翻译,2001(01):24-27. <br />
<br />
*Zheng Dehu.郑德虎. Chinese culture going out and translation of cultural loaded words[J].中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br />
<br />
*Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of "cultural self-confidence"--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. Zhengzhou: Wenxin Publishing House, 2005.郑州：文心出版社，2005.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi.廖七一．Contemporary British translation theory [M].当代英国翻译理论［M］．Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001.<br />
武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001.<br />
<br />
*Hu Weijia.胡维佳. Translation of proper nouns under the guidance of functional translation theory[J].功能翻译理论指导下的专有名词翻译[J]. Shanghai Translation, 2006(04):34-36.上海翻译,2006(04):34-36.<br />
<br />
*Huang Lin. 黄琳. A study on the English translation of the cultural load words of The West Wing from the perspective of cultural "going out"[J].文化“走出去”视角下《西厢记》文化负载词英译研究[J]. Journal of Culture, 2020(09):177-180. 文化学刊，2020(09):177-180.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhaoguo.李兆国. Cultural Factors in Translation and the Treatment of Culturally Loaded Words[J]. 翻译中的文化因素及文化负载词的处理[J]. Journal of the College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Normal University, 2003(03):107-108山东师范大学外国语学院学报, 2003(03):107-108<br />
<br />
*Tan Ping. 谭平. English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br />
<br />
【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620==<br />
<center>刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br />
<br />
====1.1 Research Background====<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need "Go out" to let the world hear "Chinese voice" and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br />
<br />
China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. "A Bite of China" is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Research Significance==== <br />
We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary "A Bite of China".<br />
<br />
====1.3 Research Methods====<br />
This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br />
<br />
====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br />
Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br />
<br />
The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br />
<br />
The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br />
The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br />
===2 Literature Review=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br />
Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br />
<br />
Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br />
<br />
====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br />
In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br />
<br />
Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article "On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation" in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article "A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation", in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published "An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation". This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.<br />
<br />
In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early "dubbing translation system" to the current "audiovisual translation", focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br />
<br />
====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br />
The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book "Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism", Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the "loyalty principle" to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br />
<br />
===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
"A Bite of China" is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in "A Bite of China" involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br />
<br />
====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br />
The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is "have you eaten?" The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in "A Bite of China", such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br />
<br />
====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China". For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in "A Bite of China" ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br />
<br />
===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br />
The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br />
<br />
In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br />
<br />
====4.2Replacement====<br />
According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br />
<br />
Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br />
<br />
"靠山吃山，靠海吃海" is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into "make use of the local resources available", the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br />
<br />
Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br />
Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br />
<br />
Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br />
<br />
Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br />
Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br />
<br />
In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br />
<br />
====4.4 Literal Translation====<br />
Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br />
<br />
Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics "white cut chicken" represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br />
This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br />
In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking "China on the Bite of the Tongue" as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br />
<br />
Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of "A Bite of China" from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br />
<br />
Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br />
<br />
Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in "A Bite of China" Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br />
<br />
Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br />
<br />
eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br />
<br />
Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br />
<br />
<center>曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br />
<br />
Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br />
<br />
In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br />
<br />
本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br />
<br />
Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br />
<br />
Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br />
<br />
'''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br />
<br />
Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br />
<br />
The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's "300 China's immortal poems", which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the "Lifetime achievements in translation" from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br />
<br />
Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
<br />
This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br />
<br />
In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br />
<br />
Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br />
<br />
When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br />
<br />
'''When entering "culture-loaded words" in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br />
<br />
Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br />
<br />
Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br />
<br />
Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br />
<br />
Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br />
<br />
“A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
[[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br />
<br />
Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br />
<br />
In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br />
<br />
The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br />
<br />
“Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br />
<br />
红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br />
<br />
1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br />
<br />
Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br />
Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br />
<br />
Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br />
<br />
"As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture."(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br />
<br />
As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the "creator", who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br />
<br />
“The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br />
<br />
万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br />
<br />
2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br />
<br />
Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br />
strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br />
<br />
In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br />
<br />
'''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br />
<br />
“As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'." (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done "at will" on the premise of "not exceeding the rules", with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br />
<br />
中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br />
<br />
3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br />
<br />
Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br />
to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br />
<br />
“Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br />
<br />
4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br />
<br />
4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br />
<br />
Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br />
<br />
5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br />
<br />
5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br />
<br />
All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br />
<br />
According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br />
<br />
Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br />
<br />
According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br />
<br />
Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br />
<br />
6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br />
<br />
Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br />
<br />
Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br />
<br />
“The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br />
<br />
In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br />
<br />
天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br />
<br />
7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br />
<br />
Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br />
The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br />
<br />
7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br />
<br />
Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br />
But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br />
<br />
In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br />
<br />
7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br />
<br />
====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br />
<br />
In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br />
<br />
The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br />
<br />
Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Creative Violation====<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br />
<br />
Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of "the six classics annotate me" and "there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br />
<br />
Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br />
<br />
“Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br />
<br />
Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and foreign trade]. 21(03):57-61.<br />
<br />
*Chan Sin-wai 陈善伟 (2009). 从传说时代到2004年的中西翻译研究 [A Chrolonology of Translation in CHINA and in the WEST from the legendary period to 2004]. ''香港：中国大学出版社''[Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press].<br />
<br />
*Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2002). 汉英翻译基础［Fundamentals of Chinese-English Translation]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Dai Weidong 戴炜栋. (2002). 新编简明英语语言学教程 [A New Concise Course on Linguistics]. ''上海教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Edited by Literature Appreciation Dictionary Compilation Center of Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House上海辞书出版社文学鉴赏辞典编纂中心编. (2011). 毛泽东诗词鉴赏辞典[Mao Zedong poetry appreciation dictionary]. ''上海辞书出版社'' [Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Gao Fanghui 高芳卉. (2017). 从关联理论看毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译 [Translation of Culture Loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Perspective of Relevance Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报'' [Journal of Jilin University of education] (06):151-153.<br />
<br />
*Guan Yingzi 关迎紫. (2020). 认知语言学视角下的翻译策略研究 [Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics]. ''南昌：豫章师范学院报''[Nan Chang: Journal of Yuzhang Normal University]. 35(01):117-120. <br />
<br />
*Hu Deqing 胡德清. (1999). 细刻精雕，丝缕毕现——评许渊冲教授新译《毛泽东诗词选》的修辞美 [Fine Engraving and Silk thread Showing -- On the Rhetorical Beauty of Professor Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Selected Poems of Mao Zedong]. ''中国翻译'' [Chinese translation]. (6) 31- 33.<br />
<br />
*Hu Wenzhong 胡文仲. (1999). 跨文化交际面面观 [Aspects of Intercultural Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社''[Foreign language teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2000).当代西方翻译理论探索 [Exploration of contemporary western translation theory]. ''南京:译林出版社'' [Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House].<br />
<br />
*Mao Zedong's poetry Translation Group 毛泽东诗词翻译组. (1976). 毛泽东诗词（汉英对照）. [ Mao Zedong's Poetry (Chinese – English Edition)]. ''北京：外文出版社''[Beijing: Foreign Languages Press].<br />
<br />
*Qin Jianghua & Xu Jun覃江华,许钧. (2018). 许渊冲翻译语言观释解[Interpretation of Xu Yuanchong's View on Translation Language]. ''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (06):118-125.<br />
<br />
*Wang Ping 王平. (2007). 传神达意重在理解———评毛泽东诗词中含“飞”字句式的英译［Conveying Spirit and Meaning, Focusing on Understanding -- On the English translation of "Flying" Sentence Pattern in Mao Zedong's Poems］. ''外语学刊''[Journal of foreign languages]. (05):121-123.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观[Translation Perspective in Cognitive Linguistic. ''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (05):15-20.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yin 王寅. (2007). 认知语言学[Cognitive Linguistics]. ''上海外语教育出版社'' [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Xiao kunxue 肖坤学. (2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on "Competition Theory" and "Superiority Theory" -- Comment on "Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty"].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br />
<br />
*Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br />
<br />
*Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br />
===摘要===<br />
摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br />
===关键词===<br />
圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br />
<br />
Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br />
<br />
The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
====The early stage====<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts and relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recite the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there are other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br />
====The developing stage==== <br />
The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage include Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not losing the original meaning.As to the features of Buddhist translation in this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the translation quality improved a lot as more and more people possessing the knowledge of the two languages attending.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br />
<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
====The peaking stage====<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang has made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br />
<br />
Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br />
Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious ideas and cultural conversion.<br />
<br />
These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)<br />
<br />
The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,28)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.As we all know,the Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible translation of other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. James’ literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br />
<br />
The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br />
===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br />
Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br />
<br />
First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person to translate the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and is known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, which banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br />
<br />
Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br />
<br />
The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The king approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the West since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br />
<br />
The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br />
<br />
There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br />
===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br />
===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br />
1.From the translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the absorption of the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first written literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, "reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism", and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br />
<br />
===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development is quite mature. In terms of the translation results , the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) <br />
<br />
1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69) --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,although not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br />
<br />
2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the "translation field" method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation.Zhi Chen who was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br />
<br />
An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, "because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of "metaphysical meaning". The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br />
<br />
According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed "foreign words" into "Chinese words", using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with a simple and solemn language rich in images. The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it takes into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br />
<br />
The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on "reproducing the message of the original language," both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejects the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br />
<br />
In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is "God's inspiration" in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br />
(1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time and enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br />
<br />
The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
(2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article "The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics", summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br />
A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br />
<br />
1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br />
<br />
2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br />
<br />
3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br />
<br />
4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br />
<br />
5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br />
<br />
6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br />
<br />
7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br />
<br />
8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase as translation methods are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. <br />
<br />
9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and difficult to follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and add or delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of time, new translators have higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, and realize the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, so they return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br />
<br />
10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily understood and accepted by the general public, the translators again favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and that they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 15:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京：中国对外翻译出版设，1984.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京：商务印书馆，2004<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009.<br />
<br />
Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,32(01):67-70.<br />
<br />
Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料,2009,(06):31-32<br />
<br />
Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家,2018,(18):187.<br />
<br />
Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛,2014,5(01):117-119.<br />
<br />
Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学(下半月),2009,(07):327.<br />
<br />
Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the "Bible"] [J]山东广播电视大学学报，2009，(01):62-64.<br />
<br />
Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译,2008,(03):46-50<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<center>常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br />
<br />
As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br />
===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br />
According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br />
<br />
The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br />
According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br />
<br />
Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br />
<br />
Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br />
<br />
3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br />
====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br />
''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br />
<br />
The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br />
<br />
The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br />
<br />
Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br />
<br />
In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br />
<br />
On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br />
<br />
Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br />
<br />
====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br />
The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br />
<br />
Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br />
=====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example1:<br />
<br />
Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br />
<br />
希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br />
<br />
“Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 2: <br />
<br />
The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br />
<br />
那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br />
<br />
The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
Example 3: <br />
<br />
Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br />
<br />
叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br />
<br />
In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br />
<br />
可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br />
<br />
In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 5: <br />
<br />
He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br />
<br />
他又要了一碗五味酒。<br />
<br />
“Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br />
<br />
Example 6: <br />
<br />
I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br />
<br />
有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br />
<br />
“Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br />
<br />
Example 7: <br />
<br />
It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br />
<br />
只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br />
<br />
=====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 8: <br />
<br />
In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br />
<br />
正在对他训话。<br />
<br />
“Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br />
<br />
Example 9: <br />
<br />
But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br />
<br />
花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br />
<br />
“Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br />
<br />
Example 10: <br />
<br />
He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br />
<br />
他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br />
<br />
“Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 11: <br />
<br />
Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br />
<br />
每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br />
<br />
The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br />
<br />
There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br />
<br />
Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br />
<br />
The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br />
<br />
Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br />
<br />
A second wife 填房<br />
<br />
Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br />
<br />
O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br />
<br />
=====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 12: <br />
<br />
Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br />
<br />
奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br />
<br />
“Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br />
<br />
Example 13: <br />
<br />
What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br />
<br />
汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br />
<br />
“Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br />
<br />
Example 14: <br />
<br />
So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br />
<br />
同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br />
<br />
In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br />
<br />
====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 15: <br />
She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br />
<br />
她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br />
=====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 16：<br />
<br />
He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br />
<br />
因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br />
<br />
This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br />
<br />
Example 17: <br />
<br />
When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br />
<br />
用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br />
<br />
The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 18: <br />
<br />
Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br />
<br />
摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br />
<br />
“Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br />
<br />
=====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
Example 19: <br />
<br />
I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br />
<br />
我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br />
<br />
Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 20: <br />
<br />
“Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br />
<br />
他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br />
<br />
This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br />
<br />
Example 21: <br />
<br />
Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br />
<br />
当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br />
<br />
“Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br />
<br />
Example 22: <br />
<br />
About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br />
<br />
活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br />
<br />
There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 23: <br />
<br />
He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br />
<br />
在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br />
<br />
The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br />
<br />
====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br />
Example 24: <br />
<br />
Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br />
<br />
我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br />
<br />
“Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br />
<br />
Example 25:<br />
<br />
Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br />
<br />
白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br />
<br />
The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br />
Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br />
<br />
Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br />
<br />
[2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br />
<br />
[3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br />
<br />
[4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br />
<br />
[5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br />
<br />
[6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br />
<br />
[8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br />
<br />
[9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br />
<br />
[10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br />
<br />
[11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br />
<br />
<center>谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br />
<br />
Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 10:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word "Skopos" refers to "purpose" in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as "the principle of purposes". According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, "each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: <br />
translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." (Nord 2001,29). <br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br />
<br />
Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's "faithfulness" or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br />
<br />
To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br />
Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
The interpretation of the word "strategy" by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as "a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time." Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
An authoritative concept of the word "technique" given by Collins describes it as "a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills." Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br />
<br />
A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation comes into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutual restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing a crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfil their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br />
<br />
===Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====The translation of tourism texts====<br />
Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). "TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products." (M. Zain Sulaiman & Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br />
<br />
Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br />
<br />
Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br />
<br />
TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br />
<br />
TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including "立地顶天", "摇摇欲坠", "玲珑剔透" etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br />
（九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br />
<br />
TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the "Fabled World", is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information on the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like "荷叶", "书正" and "则查洼" in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br />
<br />
TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br />
<br />
Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, "章武三年", "白帝城永安宫" and "惠陵" are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as "the third year of Zhangwu", "Yongan Palace in Baidi City" and "Hui Mausoleum", these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. "章武三年" is translated into "233" which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. "白帝城永安宫" is flexibly treated as "Fengjie County, Sichuan Province", a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br />
Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br />
<br />
In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to the dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 4<br />
<br />
ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br />
<br />
TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br />
<br />
Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br />
<br />
TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. "Good," she said, "So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off." (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br />
<br />
TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase "蟾宫折桂". <br />
<br />
Yang translated it literally and directly as "pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon", maintaining the exclusive Chinese images "osmanthus". In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into "I wish you every success", exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br />
<br />
Now that Skopos Theory states that "aim justifies end", the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br />
<br />
TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word "炮烙" is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted "炮烙" into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The translation of business texts====<br />
Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as "English used in the business context". "It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP)." (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as "Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs." (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br />
<br />
Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of "business" and "English". Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand the Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved. (郭晓燕 2017,36)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the "economic principle" of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted "我已经做出选择" and superseded the Chinese word "和" with the punctuation of "+", taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br />
<br />
TT1:未来即现在。<br />
<br />
TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of "未来即现在" will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of "让未来现在就来" paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of the early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of the high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is the Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br />
<br />
TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br />
<br />
Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including "一如既往", "不折不扣", "别具一格" and "独一无二" have been translated into " as ever" and "unique". <br />
<br />
More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Summary and conclusion===<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br />
<br />
This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship between guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. (2009). 解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行） [Interpretation of "University Business English Undergraduate Professional Teaching Requirements" (for trial implementation)]. ''Foreign Languages in China'' 中国外语 4-11.<br />
<br />
* Dong Chuan, Chen Ling 董川, 陈玲. (2020). 武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究 [Wushu Translation Strategies, Methods and Techniques]. ''Sports World (Academic Edition)'' 体育世界（学术版） 55-56.<br />
<br />
* Dong Xiaobo 董晓波. (2012). ''翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Translation]. Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经贸大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Guo Xiaoyan. 郭晓燕. (2017). ''商务英语翻译'' [Business English Translation]. Beijing: 对外经贸大学出版社 University of International Business and Economics Press<br />
<br />
* Han Tingting 韩婷婷. (2020). 目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究 [A Probe into the Translation Strategies of Tea Culture Texts from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].''福建茶叶'' Fujian Tea 298-299.<br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe 哈丽叶特·比切·斯托. (1999). ''汤姆叔叔的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Jeremy Mundy 杰里米·芒迪. (2007). ''翻译学导论——理论与实践'' [An Introduction to Translation Studies-Theory and Practice].Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Jiao Tan, Zhang Hui 焦炭, 张辉. (2019). 旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例 [Translation methods and strategies of commentaries on tourist attractions——Taking the English translation of commentaries on tourist attractions in Bozhou City as an example]. ''Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China'' 中国民航飞行学院学报 42-46.<br />
<br />
* Lu Xun. 鲁迅. (2004). ''祝福''[Blessings].Beijing: China Youth Press 中国青年出版社.<br />
<br />
* Mo Hongli. 莫红利. (2014). 目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies of English Translation of Enterprise Profiles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].Exam Weekly 考试周刊 79-81.<br />
<br />
* Song Yulu. 宋玉露. (2020). 目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究 [Research on Ge Haowen's Translation of "Full Breasts and Fat Buttocks" from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br />
<br />
* Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br />
<br />
* Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br />
<br />
* Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking "translation methods", "translation strategies" and "translation skills" as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking "Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu" as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br />
<br />
First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br />
<br />
Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br />
<br />
However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br />
<br />
In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===2.Literature Reviews===<br />
<br />
Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br />
<br />
===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br />
<br />
The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br />
<br />
====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br />
<br />
According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br />
<br />
To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br />
<br />
===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br />
<br />
His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of "functional equivalence" provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br />
<br />
In his book "Language, Culture, and Translation," Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br />
<br />
Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br />
<br />
====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br />
<br />
In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards "receptor response" as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br />
<br />
An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br />
<br />
This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br />
<br />
Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. "Receptor response" is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
<br />
This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br />
<br />
====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
黑马 black horse<br />
披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br />
动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br />
Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br />
Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br />
<br />
On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. "Descendants of the Dragon" , "Legend of the Dragon", these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br />
<br />
That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image "dragon" exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of "dragon" is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. "Descendants of the Dragon", "Legend of the Dragon" these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
There are some examples<br />
Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br />
Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br />
Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br />
Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br />
<br />
====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br />
<br />
As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "functional equivalence" is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br />
<br />
In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as "flea", "cuckoo", "albatross", "bumblebee" and so on. For example, "a white elephant", "worthless or worthless", "a elephant's memory", "a flea in one's ear", "as mad as hornet". The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br />
<br />
====6.1 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br />
动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br />
坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br />
老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br />
<br />
In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into "to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight"; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br />
<br />
English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br />
<br />
Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br />
Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br />
<br />
====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br />
<br />
Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br />
<br />
胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br />
力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br />
虎口——lion’s mouth <br />
养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br />
害群之马——a black sheep <br />
像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br />
杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br />
<br />
Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br />
<br />
But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than "timid as a mouse" . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br />
<br />
Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as "as strong as a horse" . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br />
<br />
In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br />
<br />
Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br />
<br />
====6.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br />
<br />
The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br />
<br />
There are examples.<br />
To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br />
To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br />
Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br />
牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br />
虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br />
强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br />
马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br />
效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br />
<br />
The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br />
<br />
There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br />
画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br />
羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br />
杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br />
Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br />
挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br />
<br />
In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br />
<br />
===7.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br />
<br />
===8.References===<br />
<br />
*Nida, E. A. &Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br />
<br />
*Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br />
<br />
*Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br />
<br />
*Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br />
<br />
*Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br />
<br />
*Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br />
<br />
== On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br />
<br />
<center>彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br />
<br />
本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br />
<br />
=== Introduction === <br />
<br />
The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br />
<br />
Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br />
<br />
This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br />
<br />
As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br />
<br />
=== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang === <br />
<br />
Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br />
<br />
Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, "For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization" (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br />
<br />
=== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version === <br />
<br />
''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are "Wedded Bliss," "The Little Pleasures of Life," "Sorrow," "The Joys of Travel," "Experience," and "The Way of Life." However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br />
<br />
Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br />
<br />
=== II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on "functions of the texts and translations" (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for "aim" or "purpose" (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, "translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation" (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br />
<br />
Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an "offer of information," which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br />
<br />
=== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ===<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is "The end justifies the means"(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: "Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function" (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br />
<br />
The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as "fidelity rule" (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br />
<br />
The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br />
<br />
Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br />
<br />
=== 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br />
<br />
For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as "a dull fish," "a big fish," and "a queer fish" and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' === <br />
<br />
A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br />
<br />
Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br />
<br />
=== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory === <br />
<br />
When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br />
<br />
Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br />
<br />
Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br />
<br />
As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating "乾隆癸末" into the year of "1763", "朔望" into "the first and fifteenth of every month" and "丑末" into "towards three o'clock". Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br />
<br />
Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of "龙井" and "小有天园", Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 5: 余曰:"坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易"。I told her there was a kind of shoes called "butterfly shoes," which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为"臭乳腐"。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called "stinking bean-curd" in Soochow. (p. 40)<br />
<br />
Lin translates "臭腐乳" and "蝴蝶履" respectively into "butterfly shoes" and "stinking bean-curd" by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br />
<br />
Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br />
<br />
The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating "馄饨" into "wonton" and "马褂" into "makua". Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br />
<br />
Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br />
<br />
Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br />
<br />
Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as "Chang Lanp'o" for "张兰坡" and "Ch'ingchun" for "青君". As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br />
<br />
Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br />
<br />
Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like "李太白" and "白乐天" are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names "Li Po" and "Po Chuyi" so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br />
<br />
Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br />
<br />
Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br />
<br />
Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate "鬼节," "天" and "魂" respectively into "All Soul's Day," "gods" and "spirit of the deceased" in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word "天", it is translated into "gods" which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
=== 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words === <br />
<br />
Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br />
<br />
Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br />
<br />
As we can see from the example，because of the word "关雎", Lin knows "三百篇" means "The Book of Songs", while he translates it into "the Book of poems" which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, "关雎" is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into "a poem on wedded love" makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br />
<br />
"萍水相逢" comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. "萍" in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of "萍水相逢" to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
=== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies === <br />
<br />
Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.1 Translator === <br />
<br />
The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.2 Readership === <br />
<br />
Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br />
<br />
=== 3.3.3 Translation Purpose === <br />
<br />
In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion === <br />
<br />
As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br />
<br />
In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br />
<br />
=== References === <br />
<br />
Bao, H. N. [包惠南] & Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br />
<br />
Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br />
<br />
Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br />
<br />
Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br />
<center>杨悦 Yang Yue </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br />
<br />
A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br />
<br />
Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br />
<br />
Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br />
===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br />
<br />
Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br />
<br />
Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br />
<br />
“The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br />
<br />
In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed "dynamic equivalence", emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of "content first, form second", which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br />
<br />
Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br />
<br />
Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br />
<br />
Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br />
<br />
In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.2 The informative function====<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br />
<br />
Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br />
On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br />
<br />
According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br />
Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br />
Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br />
<br />
Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br />
<br />
The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br />
<br />
Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.2 Addition====<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br />
<br />
As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br />
<br />
The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br />
<br />
Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br />
<br />
For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br />
<br />
Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br />
<br />
The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2.3 Omission====<br />
Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br />
<br />
Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br />
<br />
Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br />
<br />
Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br />
<br />
In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br />
===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br />
====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca "卡萨布兰卡", Mulan "花木兰", etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br />
<br />
However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into "塞尔玛与路易斯", the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br />
<br />
The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as "末路狂花" (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br />
<br />
Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as "乱世佳人". The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as "廊桥遗梦", which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br />
<br />
The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: "我最好朋友的婚礼" and "新娘不是我". In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br />
<br />
This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===6. References===<br />
*He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br />
*Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br />
*Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br />
*Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br />
*Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br />
*Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br />
*Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br />
*Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br />
*Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
*Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips-Studio Chart". http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br />
<br />
== Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br />
<br />
<Center> Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611.</Center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory; resume; translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；简历；翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br />
<br />
A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills.（Wikipedia.） Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br />
<br />
According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Resume====<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.1 Conciseness<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br />
<br />
When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents sometimes will prepare resumes with more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.2 Clarity<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.3 Authenticity<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br />
<br />
Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, because lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER.（Hu Tingting,13）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.2.4 Pertinence<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br />
<br />
If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br />
If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.2.5 Objectivity<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br />
<br />
I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Sentences similar to the above can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confessions. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br />
<br />
Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
1.3.1 Role of Resume<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br />
<br />
According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
According to different reading objects, Chinese resumes should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and English resumes should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long,which are more than 2 pages or even 3 pages. And some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resumes as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br />
<br />
Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, using specific keywords in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play behavior-oriented roles in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Here are examples:<br />
<br />
①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br />
②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br />
③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br />
④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br />
<br />
The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br />
<br />
Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translators should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br />
<br />
The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which frees translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br />
<br />
After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, translators should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation tasks. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. <br />
<br />
According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan <br />
<br />
Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
<br />
The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translators (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translations(such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translations(such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translators should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of the coherence rule, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br />
<br />
When the translators apply the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translators should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br />
<br />
According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br />
<br />
This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br />
<br />
According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br />
<br />
From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br />
<br />
The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Action verbs<br />
<br />
A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br />
<br />
2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br />
<br />
3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br />
<br />
4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br />
<br />
2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br />
<br />
3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br />
<br />
4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br />
<br />
<br />
These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br />
<br />
<br />
When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br />
<br />
When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br />
<br />
Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br />
<br />
Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br />
<br />
<br />
From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br />
<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br />
<br />
Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br />
<br />
It usually takes about 30 seconds for the HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tenses are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br />
2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br />
3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br />
4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br />
<br />
<br />
In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br />
<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person "I", the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br />
<br />
When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
<br />
1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br />
<br />
2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br />
<br />
3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br />
<br />
2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br />
<br />
3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br />
<br />
<br />
Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br />
<br />
From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br />
<br />
Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br />
<br />
In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br />
<br />
There is a big difference between English resumes. Because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<br />
姓名：张三<br />
<br />
性别：男<br />
<br />
年龄：25<br />
<br />
身高：185<br />
<br />
政治面貌：团员<br />
<br />
婚否：已婚<br />
<br />
地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br />
<br />
电话：1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
Translation:<br />
<br />
Zhang San<br />
<br />
Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br />
<br />
Tel:1337658xxxx<br />
<br />
Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br />
<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br />
<br />
By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3.2 Concise Style<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br />
<br />
As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br />
<br />
2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br />
<br />
2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br />
<br />
Translation 1:<br />
<br />
2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Translation 2:<br />
<br />
Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br />
<br />
National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br />
<br />
Excellent Student(2 Times)<br />
<br />
Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br />
<br />
Outstanding League Members<br />
<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br />
<br />
The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. So it is easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br />
<br />
Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br />
<br />
Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
[1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br />
<br />
[5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br />
<br />
[8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br />
<br />
[10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br />
<br />
[11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br />
<br />
[12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br />
<br />
[13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br />
<br />
[14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br />
<br />
[15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=115716History of Translation Studies 112020-12-19T12:30:09Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI ==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this chapter gives a detailed overview on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this chapter makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this chapter argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the discipline construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) While, translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the grammer rule of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. Through translation practices, people summarize principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choosing of words and sentences and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present an all-round explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) <br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and full understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining and guiding social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, its external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.<br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) <br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theories came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards being systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church was hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero from the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the stylistic characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, a representative of translators during this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There were also many representatives in this period. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) They are: the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of the development of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in the process of translation. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. Firstly, do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while secondly, make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation proposed by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation, and making elaborations on them. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) <br />
<br />
During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
During this period, translations in commerce circles, diplomatic affairs, science and technology and other professional fields witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theories emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is the "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages in many aspects instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and he also discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theories. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Being different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods were profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, translation theories in this period were practical.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward the concept of "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great deal of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the same meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theories are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of human. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation to this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between China and West in their translation histories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) <br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the differences in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures have always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarities between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarities between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents to be similar with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides are independent from each other, but they share some commonalities. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions to convey the content of the source language,which the target reader is accustomed to. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the foreign language features, and absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be used separately. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original texts, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
This chapter holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarities between them have drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose requirements on the translator in three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equal to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated the importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. Therefore, Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a complete representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, the English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions of the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should accurately reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the differences between Chinese and Western way of thinking are universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of translation experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own laws of development, which is proved by the similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this chapter proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation system, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences are more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker, and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass, and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for descendants, including translations of literature and theory works. From the time line, the records of his translation activities are much earlier than his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:13, 16 December 2020 (UTC)徐梦蝶修改<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation, and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation, hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation, as well as translation criticism.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, translations of two categories have distinct purposes. （Chen 2000, 289）--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literary workers standing with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation with the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. From his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to be the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept, literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me,(这里是自己翻译的原文吧，我觉得是不是可以附加上中文的原文？) there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. From Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and to introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammar, and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers when they treat foreign texts. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, the other purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and the other is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not ideal, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance, retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied of my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303). " In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appear. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and highlight the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to rotten apples. As for previous methods, once there was anywhere rotten in an apple, people would discard it completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also be taken into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from “the survival of the fittest” advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese, and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change the original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and in vernacular Chinese with translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first (to march to a different drummer)? and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
u Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation， as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that to enlighten Chinese people and to save the old China by learning from foreign literary works, promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
(这里可以分两段)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. <br />
<br />
The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Keywords is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目 is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。<br />
<br />
理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. <br />
<br />
The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. <br />
<br />
In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” <br />
<br />
For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. <br />
<br />
What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. <br />
<br />
The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
<br />
<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. <br />
<br />
Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. <br />
<br />
As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
<br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. <br />
<br />
The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. <br />
<br />
From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. <br />
<br />
However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. <br />
<br />
Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
<br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. <br />
<br />
The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. <br />
<br />
Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. <br />
<br />
It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
<br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
<br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. <br />
<br />
When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. <br />
<br />
After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. <br />
<br />
But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
<br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.<br />
<br />
Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
摘要需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. <br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(<span style="color:red">practices</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. <br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), researches(<span style="color:red">studies</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). <br />
<br />
As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction(<span style="color:red">directions</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11). <br />
<br />
In order to provide some new(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text(<span style="color:red">texts</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52). <br />
<br />
The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort(<span style="color:red">efforts</span>), Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a(<span style="color:red">an essential</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features(<span style="color:red">language features of subtitle translation</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493). <br />
<br />
2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>) films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247). <br />
<br />
After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather(<span style="color:red">''Western Leather''</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However(<span style="color:red">Moreover</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles(<span style="color:red">principle</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze(<span style="color:red">analyzes them</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, (<span style="color:red">focusing on</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. <br />
<br />
In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece(<span style="color:red">masterpieces</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine(<span style="color:red">Ihe company</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere (<span style="color:red">in the world</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. <br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions(<span style="color:red">, key points of Eco-translatology theory</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC).<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically(<span style="color:red">grammatical</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(<span style="color:red">in</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 <br />
<br />
ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse(<span style="color:red">various</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
From the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay (<span style="color:red">pay s[ecial</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference(<span style="color:red">differences</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC) or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 <br />
<br />
ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. <br />
<br />
After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.<br />
<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary (<span style="color:red">achievements</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that (<span style="color:red">people or</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 <br />
<br />
ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, (<span style="color:red">which is</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad(<span style="color:red">broader</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or (<span style="color:red">or an</span>) enterprise--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. <br />
<br />
In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information (<span style="color:red">information above</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 <br />
<br />
ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a (<span style="color:red">an advertising video promoting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples(<span style="color:red">in the video</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 <br />
<br />
ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated(<span style="color:red">target</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. <br />
<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) conduct(<span style="color:red">conducting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.<br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. <br />
<br />
The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
[1] Chen K., Yang F. F. Research on C-E Translation of Commercial Advertisement in Xi’an [J]. Education Research Frontier, 2019 (9: 1): 16-22.<br />
<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
<br />
[4] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
<br />
[5] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
<br />
[6] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
<br />
[7] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
<br />
[8] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
<br />
[10] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
<br />
[11] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
<br />
[15] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
<br />
[16] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
<br />
[17] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
<br />
[18] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
<br />
[19] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
<br />
[20] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
<br />
[21] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
<br />
[22] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
[23] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
<br />
[24] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
<br />
[25] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
[27] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
<br />
[28] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. <br />
<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories are useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references from the practice of translation theories.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。<br />
<br />
刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) <br />
<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing on the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation into the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorist, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation ideals proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art are influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that to one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed for the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation theory, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understands what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different to study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)<br />
<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation into the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examine the process of the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process of cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate about three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation are faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference between their time and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conducting linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one that doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful of this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)<br />
<br />
Bell conforms to the definition of regarding translation as "the expression of another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product of paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even in the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)<br />
<br />
As proposed in to the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definitions of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither delete nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) <br />
<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation are his efforts of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy about this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories about reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation methods. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy for words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impairs the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell brings in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent to different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: <br />
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;<br />
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell,1991:61)<br />
<br />
They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell,1991:68)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intends to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas about the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently conveying the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how styles influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later are profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same functions so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest in the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in the process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of translation. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks translation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free translation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose of Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is trying to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believes that the judgement should be made by translators, translator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetry which is faithful to the original text.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. <br />
<br />
By comprising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also applies psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation processes remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982. <br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993. <br />
<br />
Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses (''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses(''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. <br />
<br />
Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. <br />
<br />
Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. <br />
<br />
In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. <br />
<br />
Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. <br />
<br />
For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. <br />
<br />
By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. <br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.<br />
<br />
For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.<br />
<br />
Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar.<br />
<br />
Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.<br />
<br />
Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. <br />
<br />
Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. <br />
<br />
The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. <br />
<br />
However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. <br />
<br />
Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. <br />
<br />
In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. <br />
<br />
Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. <br />
<br />
Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. <br />
<br />
Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. <br />
<br />
For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. <br />
<br />
In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588== <br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
[suggestion: "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories.".(Here, this sentence can be changed into "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories.)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
[suggestion:It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began.(Here, in this sentence, you may change the word "began" into "have begun".<br />
Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation,(Here, don't forget the quotation mark."Three Principles of Translation")<br />
……，and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. (Here, you may delete the word "of".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:(''xin''),(''da''),(''ya''),it's better to write it in Chinese"信","达","雅".<br />
Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea,…….(Here, you may change the word "sea" into "shipping".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:……fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style.(Here, you may change the word "elegance" into "elegant".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs,…….(Here, you may delete the second "as".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing.(Here, you may add a word "do" after the word "wrting".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation …….(Here, don't forget the quotation mark."Three Principles of Translation")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:……,more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation.(Here, you may change the word "requirements" into "demands".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
[suggestion:……,especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period.(Here, you may add a comma and a word "which" before "has increased".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun,…….(Here, you may change this sentence into "Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese , because he learned from Wu Rulun,……")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically.(Here, you may delete the word "ideologically".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.(You may change this sentence into "Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.<br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71).<br />
<br />
[suggestion:the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them.(Here, you may change the word "adjust" into "adjusting".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
[suggesion:It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.(Here, you may change the word "their" into "his".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信).(Here, in this sentence, you may change the word "in" into "by".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:……were not put forward at the same time. (Here, you may change "at the same time" into "during the same era".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history.(You may change the word "profound" into "long".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style.(You may change this sentence into "In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is.")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients,…….(You may change this sentence into "On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advoted the ancients,……".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)<br />
<br />
However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking.(You may change the word "relationhsip" into "relation".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler…….(Here, you may change the word "times" into "era".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
[Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
[ Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] 上海:上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
[Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] 北京:中国对外翻译出版有限公司. Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
[Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
[Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
[Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
[Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] 北京:中央编译出版社 Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） <br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese because it . Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. <br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====Newmark====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Both Are Translatable=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Translation Theories=====<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===My Views on Their Theories===<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991). About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15) <br />
<br />
According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. <br />
<br />
Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) <br />
<br />
Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. <br />
<br />
The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. <br />
<br />
The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. <br />
<br />
The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9) <br />
<br />
Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. <br />
<br />
He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. <br />
<br />
He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. <br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. <br />
<br />
The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation. <br />
<br />
First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153) <br />
<br />
Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. <br />
<br />
The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. <br />
<br />
In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3). <br />
<br />
He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. <br />
<br />
In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. <br />
<br />
His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28). <br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. <br />
<br />
The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. <br />
<br />
Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. <br />
<br />
There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. <br />
<br />
The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation. <br />
<br />
He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation. <br />
<br />
The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts. <br />
<br />
The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times. <br />
<br />
John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.<br />
<br />
He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.<br />
<br />
In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67). <br />
<br />
Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. <br />
<br />
They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. <br />
<br />
It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center> 写名字即可--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound was a representative poet and literary critic of the western literary scene in the early 20th century. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in the creation and study of poetry. At the same period, China was undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's theory of poetry is considered to be deeply influenced by Pound, but growing out of a specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from the comparison of their translation principles in terms of rhyme, image and structure.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），172-173). 引用的人名要用拼音--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need to recommend Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, a movement that deserves our attention is the vernacular literary movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in desperate need of opening up and learning from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（12），432-433). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal experience of studying painting and his contact with western poets at that time are materials worth discussing.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
These two figures are chosen for comparison in this paper because, first, they lived in the same period and both participated in two important literary movements of their time; second, both of them interpreted and applied traditional Chinese poems to modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, a comparison on their understanding of poetry translation is a way to learn the role of traditional Chinese culture in modern times and to better understand these two poets and translators.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers about them. Through close reading, we come to understand their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. The works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles(孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），37).<br />
<br />
Comparative study: since there are some commonalities between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in respectively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进 2005，133-134).<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles have been published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing was a watershed moment, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo was a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he was inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound in terms of a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1）,92).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo was a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing the social and cultural upheaval of the collapse of the old and the rise of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he had revolutionary ideas at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't directly participate in the May 4th Movement, he demonstrated his firm support for the students through a passionate and patriotic poem. Obviously, Wen Yiduo's literary creation cannot be separated from his social ideas. This can be revealed in the subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas on translation, they are also closely associated with his understanding of poetry creation, based on his personal learning and experiences.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），275-277).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. At first, he was a poet of classical poetry (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine''（松赋), ''Spring Willow''（春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to the creation of new poetry and criticized that classical poetry shouldn't be created and should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several attempts to create new poetry, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study in painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which was another transition for him. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, inspired partly by his experience studying painting and classical poetry in Chicago. Upon his return to China, he pioneered the creation of metrical poetry, linking the features of the new Western poetry with the image and structure of classical Chinese verse. He demanded beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. The best of his work to realize his principles can be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of making translation, which was to find an answer for his own time and to solve the problems that existed in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social dilemmas brought about by industrialism, cyclical economic crisis, the segregation of people from one another, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poetry translation should be word-for-word but maintain connotations behind it. He identified the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and that classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all can be a good source for imagist movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman to a father and himself to his son. Although he held some different opinions from his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression and direct use of vernacular language, while relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo has also mentioned that he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolutely free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what words contained and only a concise expression like poetry can produce stronger emotions with its natural, artistic syllables.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），202).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his studies in painting at the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. These experiences provided him with the opportunity to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of the images based on his study of both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of creation of new poems, poems of nature made up a large part of his work. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images from classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. Therefore, he decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was influenced by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets used direct language and free verse to paint the world vividly. Images were important to the Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, Wen Yiduo paid great attention to the use of image and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have a short excerpt of his early composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was one of his early vernacular poems and it's very direct and daily, but lacking in beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea of liberating human mind with a literary revolution, but he still reinforced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Therefore, Wen Yiduo criticize Hu Shi's writing as lacking in beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that the translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing to traditional Chinese painting, where the interplay of colors creates a new harmonious picture, and words should be like colors.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candle''as an example, he used the image of red candle to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is considered to be a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is expressed not only in the subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he has shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather than western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All of his principles in poetic composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mysterious one which also coincides with Pound's idea.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be described as an orientalist for his love and study of eastern cultures. Before he became acquainted with Chinese, he was captured by the concise but rich connotation contained in traditional Chinese culture. His interest in traditional Chinese poems began with ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction to oriental art（郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating traditional Chinese poem, he formed his own principles of poem composing. He believed that poem should not be written with superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices in the use of images and he was known for his superimposition of images.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').<br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images very well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is well used to paint a picture of late autumn and arouse feelings of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating to leave, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey abstract melancholy just like Chinese classical poem. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'', it has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color images. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 repeated words in the original poem but Pound only kept the repeated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his great attention to color image although he didn't mention it in his essay (''Cathy'').--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），94).<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to the use of images. Yet because of Wen Yiduo's experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we can assume that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choices for image based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was in school. Later deeply influenced by ideas of vernacular poem composition highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that he should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized that too direct expression would lose its hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of studying Tang poem. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, in his opinion, free verse is the best choice due to their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
In his comments on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator of using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then put his belief in translation into practice in his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
To maintain the characteristics of the original work, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou believed that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, in order to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into the Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can find the translated version is even more concise and has clear rhythm to form music. To form a parallel structure and a clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to conform to both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are the words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between looseness and tense within the poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on rhyme and rhythm in poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' for an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose rather than a rhymed poem, and to that extent his emphasis is more on the other side as he himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't make it a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sound is one of them. The poetry of sound could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he believed that images can be conveyed and he devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (闻一多 1926，1).<br />
<br />
Thus we can see that rhyme and rhythm are as important to Wen Yiduo as images, for he considered these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feelings. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he had no preference between the two, yet, in Pound's view, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo valued music so much that he once said that some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language because he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient souls with decoration on a modern cover. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another vessel, they may lose their favor.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 05:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛 2007，55-56).<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasting colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳 2006，85). <br />
<br />
Pound's poetic translation are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. It can be traced back to Provence love songs, Japanese Haiku and traditional Chinese poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo was the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with traditional Chinese poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is considered as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well-composed poem.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(范守义 2004，101-102). <br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas on poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First of all this poem consists of two stanzas, in each of which the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but made a little alternation to achieve a better expression. In this line, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", in order to balance the length of sentences, the translator moved the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last line, "礼拜三我爱你—对—", to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is the line -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator split the line, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠".--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(范守义 2004，101-102).<br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza, but there is a dash to indicate it. Therefore, the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance of form as well as meaning. All these efforts of the translator aimed at achieving the aesthetic sense of architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），3).<br />
<br />
In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound demand beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose with loose forms, but Wen Yiduo's translation highlighted the structural balance and stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist has absorbed elements from traditional Chinese culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the superimposition of images. And as for his form of translation, it's looser than that of Wen Yiduo's, for although Ezra Pound required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" to be "balance". His order may exist in the location of his images but it does not have to be balance in numbers of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, even though Wen Yiduo was influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic features of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
Based on the comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we can know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using in his later works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he was a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works had a solid patriotic foundation, thus he always tried to maintain traditional Chinese culture and spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their own unique cultural background and are both ardent lovers of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in their literary expressions, but there are also differences that reflect their own cultural identity like those we discovered in their own writings and translations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.英文文献后面需要添加中文--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste. ''Poetry''.<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China Foreign Affairs University'' 2004(04):98-107.<br />
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.<br />
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic<br />
*Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.(Nida 1984：21）<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015:5)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015:7)<br />
<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016：14）<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.(Fu Weici 1994:12)<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994:136)<br />
<br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.(Fu 1994:198)<br />
<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.(Guo Xiaoling 2014:4)<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.(Guo 2014:4)<br />
<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. (Cao Jing 2013:2)<br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”<br />
<br />
Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control. (Cao Jing 2013:2)<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997;2）<br />
<br />
Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”<br />
<br />
It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.(Sun 1997：2）<br />
<br />
Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”<br />
<br />
“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014:31）<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”<br />
<br />
The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.（Wang 2014:31）<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: “She was desire.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014:32）<br />
<br />
Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”<br />
<br />
The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014:33）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011:54）<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
=====4.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation=====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011:55）<br />
<br />
In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91) <br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis. <br />
<br />
The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.<br />
<br />
Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. <br />
<br />
In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. <br />
<br />
In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. <br />
<br />
Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. <br />
<br />
However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. <br />
<br />
In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. <br />
<br />
In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). <br />
<br />
Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=115713History of Translation Studies 112020-12-19T12:28:40Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI ==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this chapter gives a detailed overview on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this chapter makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this chapter argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the discipline construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) While, translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the grammer rule of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. Through translation practices, people summarize principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choosing of words and sentences and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present an all-round explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) <br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and full understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining and guiding social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, its external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.<br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) <br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theories came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards being systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church was hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero from the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the stylistic characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, a representative of translators during this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There were also many representatives in this period. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) They are: the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of the development of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in the process of translation. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. Firstly, do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while secondly, make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation proposed by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation, and making elaborations on them. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) <br />
<br />
During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
During this period, translations in commerce circles, diplomatic affairs, science and technology and other professional fields witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theories emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is the "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages in many aspects instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and he also discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theories. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Being different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods were profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, translation theories in this period were practical.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward the concept of "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great deal of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the same meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theories are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of human. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation to this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between China and West in their translation histories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) <br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the differences in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures have always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarities between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarities between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents to be similar with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides are independent from each other, but they share some commonalities. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions to convey the content of the source language,which the target reader is accustomed to. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the foreign language features, and absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be used separately. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original texts, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
This chapter holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarities between them have drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose requirements on the translator in three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equal to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated the importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. Therefore, Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a complete representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, the English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions of the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should accurately reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the differences between Chinese and Western way of thinking are universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of translation experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own laws of development, which is proved by the similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this chapter proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation system, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences are more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker, and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass, and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for descendants, including translations of literature and theory works. From the time line, the records of his translation activities are much earlier than his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:13, 16 December 2020 (UTC)徐梦蝶修改<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation, and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation, hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation, as well as translation criticism.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, translations of two categories have distinct purposes. （Chen 2000, 289）--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literary workers standing with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation with the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. From his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to be the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept, literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me,(这里是自己翻译的原文吧，我觉得是不是可以附加上中文的原文？) there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. From Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and to introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammar, and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers when they treat foreign texts. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, the other purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and the other is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not ideal, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance, retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied of my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303). " In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appear. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and highlight the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to rotten apples. As for previous methods, once there was anywhere rotten in an apple, people would discard it completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also be taken into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from “the survival of the fittest” advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese, and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change the original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and in vernacular Chinese with translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first (to march to a different drummer)? and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
u Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation， as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that to enlighten Chinese people and to save the old China by learning from foreign literary works, promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
(这里可以分两段)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. <br />
<br />
The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Keywords is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目 is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。<br />
<br />
理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. <br />
<br />
The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. <br />
<br />
In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” <br />
<br />
For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. <br />
<br />
What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. <br />
<br />
The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
<br />
<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. <br />
<br />
Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. <br />
<br />
As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
<br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. <br />
<br />
The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. <br />
<br />
From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. <br />
<br />
However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. <br />
<br />
Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
<br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. <br />
<br />
The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. <br />
<br />
Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. <br />
<br />
It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
<br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
<br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. <br />
<br />
When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. <br />
<br />
After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. <br />
<br />
But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
<br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.<br />
<br />
Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
摘要需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. <br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(<span style="color:red">practices</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. <br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), researches(<span style="color:red">studies</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). <br />
<br />
As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction(<span style="color:red">directions</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11). <br />
<br />
In order to provide some new(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text(<span style="color:red">texts</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52). <br />
<br />
The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort(<span style="color:red">efforts</span>), Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a(<span style="color:red">an essential</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features(<span style="color:red">language features of subtitle translation</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493). <br />
<br />
2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>) films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247). <br />
<br />
After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather(<span style="color:red">''Western Leather''</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However(<span style="color:red">Moreover</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles(<span style="color:red">principle</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze(<span style="color:red">analyzes them</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, (<span style="color:red">focusing on</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. <br />
<br />
In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece(<span style="color:red">masterpieces</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine(<span style="color:red">Ihe company</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere (<span style="color:red">in the world</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. <br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions(<span style="color:red">, key points of Eco-translatology theory</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC).<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically(<span style="color:red">grammatical</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(<span style="color:red">in</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 <br />
<br />
ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse(<span style="color:red">various</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
From the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay (<span style="color:red">pay s[ecial</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference(<span style="color:red">differences</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC) or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 <br />
<br />
ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. <br />
<br />
After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.<br />
<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary (<span style="color:red">achievements</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that (<span style="color:red">people or</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 <br />
<br />
ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, (<span style="color:red">which is</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad(<span style="color:red">broader</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or (<span style="color:red">or an</span>) enterprise--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. <br />
<br />
In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information (<span style="color:red">information above</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 <br />
<br />
ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a (<span style="color:red">an advertising video promoting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples(<span style="color:red">in the video</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 <br />
<br />
ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated(<span style="color:red">target</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. <br />
<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) conduct(<span style="color:red">conducting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.<br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. <br />
<br />
The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
[1] Chen K., Yang F. F. Research on C-E Translation of Commercial Advertisement in Xi’an [J]. Education Research Frontier, 2019 (9: 1): 16-22.<br />
<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
<br />
[4] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
<br />
[5] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
<br />
[6] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
<br />
[7] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
<br />
[8] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
<br />
[10] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
<br />
[11] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
<br />
[15] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
<br />
[16] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
<br />
[17] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
<br />
[18] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
<br />
[19] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
<br />
[20] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
<br />
[21] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
<br />
[22] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
[23] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
<br />
[24] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
<br />
[25] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
[27] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
<br />
[28] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. <br />
<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories are useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references from the practice of translation theories.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。<br />
<br />
刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) <br />
<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing on the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation into the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorist, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation ideals proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art are influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that to one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed for the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation theory, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understands what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different to study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)<br />
<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation into the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examine the process of the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process of cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate about three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation are faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference between their time and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conducting linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one that doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful of this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)<br />
<br />
Bell conforms to the definition of regarding translation as "the expression of another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product of paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even in the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)<br />
<br />
As proposed in to the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definitions of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither delete nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) <br />
<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation are his efforts of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy about this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories about reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation methods. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy for words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impairs the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell brings in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent to different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: <br />
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;<br />
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell,1991:61)<br />
<br />
They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell,1991:68)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intends to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas about the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently conveying the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how styles influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later are profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same functions so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest in the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in the process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of translation. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks translation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free translation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose of Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is trying to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believes that the judgement should be made by translators, translator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetry which is faithful to the original text.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. <br />
<br />
By comprising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also applies psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation processes remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982. <br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993. <br />
<br />
Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses (''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses(''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. <br />
<br />
Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. <br />
<br />
Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. <br />
<br />
In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. <br />
<br />
Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. <br />
<br />
For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. <br />
<br />
By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. <br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.<br />
<br />
For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.<br />
<br />
Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar.<br />
<br />
Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.<br />
<br />
Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. <br />
<br />
Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. <br />
<br />
The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. <br />
<br />
However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. <br />
<br />
Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. <br />
<br />
In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. <br />
<br />
Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. <br />
<br />
Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. <br />
<br />
Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. <br />
<br />
For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. <br />
<br />
In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588== <br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
[suggestion: "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories.".(Here, this sentence can be changed into "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories.)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
[suggestion:It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began.(Here, in this sentence, you may change the word "began" into "have begun".<br />
Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation,(Here, don't forget the quotation mark."Three Principles of Translation")<br />
……，and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. (Here, you may delete the word "of".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:(''xin''),(''da''),(''ya''),it's better to write it in Chinese"信","达","雅".<br />
Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea,…….(Here, you may change the word "sea" into "shipping".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:……fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style.(Here, you may change the word "elegance" into "elegant".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs,…….(Here, you may delete the second "as".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing.(Here, you may add a word "do" after the word "wrting".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation …….(Here, don't forget the quotation mark."Three Principles of Translation")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:……,more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation.(Here, you may change the word "requirements" into "demands".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
[suggestion:……,especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period.(Here, you may add a comma and a word "which" before "has increased".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun,…….(Here, you may change this sentence into "Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese , because he learned from Wu Rulun,……")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically.(Here, you may delete the word "ideologically".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.(You may change this sentence into "Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.<br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71).<br />
<br />
[suggestion:the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them.(Here, you may change the word "adjust" into "adjusting".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
[suggesion:It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.(Here, you may change the word "their" into "his".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信).(Here, in this sentence, you may change the word "in" into "by".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:……were not put forward at the same time. (Here, you may change "at the same time" into "during the same era".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history.(You may change the word "profound" into "long".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style.(You may change this sentence into "In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is.")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients,…….(You may change this sentence into "On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advoted the ancients,……".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)<br />
<br />
However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking.(You may change the word "relationhsip" into "relation".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler…….(Here, you may change the word "times" into "era".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
[Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
[ Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] 上海:上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
[Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] 北京:中国对外翻译出版有限公司. Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
[Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
[Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
[Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
[Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] 北京:中央编译出版社 Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） <br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese because it . Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. <br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====Newmark====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Both Are Translatable=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Translation Theories=====<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===My Views on Their Theories===<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991). About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15) <br />
<br />
According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. <br />
<br />
Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) <br />
<br />
Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. <br />
<br />
The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. <br />
<br />
The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. <br />
<br />
The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9) <br />
<br />
Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. <br />
<br />
He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. <br />
<br />
He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. <br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. <br />
<br />
The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation. <br />
<br />
First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153) <br />
<br />
Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. <br />
<br />
The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. <br />
<br />
In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3). <br />
<br />
He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. <br />
<br />
In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. <br />
<br />
His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28). <br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. <br />
<br />
The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. <br />
<br />
Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. <br />
<br />
There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. <br />
<br />
The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation. <br />
<br />
He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation. <br />
<br />
The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts. <br />
<br />
The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times. <br />
<br />
John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.<br />
<br />
He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.<br />
<br />
In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67). <br />
<br />
Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. <br />
<br />
They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. <br />
<br />
It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center> 写名字即可--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound was a representative poet and literary critic of the western literary scene in the early 20th century. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in the creation and study of poetry. At the same period, China was undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's theory of poetry is considered to be deeply influenced by Pound, but growing out of a specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from the comparison of their translation principles in terms of rhyme, image and structure.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），172-173). 引用的人名要用拼音--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need to recommend Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, a movement that deserves our attention is the vernacular literary movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in desperate need of opening up and learning from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（12），432-433). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal experience of studying painting and his contact with western poets at that time are materials worth discussing.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
These two figures are chosen for comparison in this paper because, first, they lived in the same period and both participated in two important literary movements of their time; second, both of them interpreted and applied traditional Chinese poems to modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, a comparison on their understanding of poetry translation is a way to learn the role of traditional Chinese culture in modern times and to better understand these two poets and translators.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers about them. Through close reading, we come to understand their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. The works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles(孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），37).<br />
<br />
Comparative study: since there are some commonalities between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in respectively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进 2005，133-134).<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles have been published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing was a watershed moment, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo was a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he was inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound in terms of a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1）,92).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo was a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing the social and cultural upheaval of the collapse of the old and the rise of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he had revolutionary ideas at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't directly participate in the May 4th Movement, he demonstrated his firm support for the students through a passionate and patriotic poem. Obviously, Wen Yiduo's literary creation cannot be separated from his social ideas. This can be revealed in the subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas on translation, they are also closely associated with his understanding of poetry creation, based on his personal learning and experiences.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），275-277).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. At first, he was a poet of classical poetry (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine''（松赋), ''Spring Willow''（春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to the creation of new poetry and criticized that classical poetry shouldn't be created and should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several attempts to create new poetry, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study in painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which was another transition for him. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, inspired partly by his experience studying painting and classical poetry in Chicago. Upon his return to China, he pioneered the creation of metrical poetry, linking the features of the new Western poetry with the image and structure of classical Chinese verse. He demanded beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. The best of his work to realize his principles can be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of making translation, which was to find an answer for his own time and to solve the problems that existed in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social dilemmas brought about by industrialism, cyclical economic crisis, the segregation of people from one another, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poetry translation should be word-for-word but maintain connotations behind it. He identified the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and that classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all can be a good source for imagist movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman to a father and himself to his son. Although he held some different opinions from his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression and direct use of vernacular language, while relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo has also mentioned that he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolutely free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what words contained and only a concise expression like poetry can produce stronger emotions with its natural, artistic syllables.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），202).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his studies in painting at the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. These experiences provided him with the opportunity to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of the images based on his study of both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of creation of new poems, poems of nature made up a large part of his work. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images from classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. Therefore, he decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was influenced by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets used direct language and free verse to paint the world vividly. Images were important to the Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, Wen Yiduo paid great attention to the use of image and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have a short excerpt of his early composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was one of his early vernacular poems and it's very direct and daily, but lacking in beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea of liberating human mind with a literary revolution, but he still reinforced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Therefore, Wen Yiduo criticize Hu Shi's writing as lacking in beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that the translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing to traditional Chinese painting, where the interplay of colors creates a new harmonious picture, and words should be like colors.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candle''as an example, he used the image of red candle to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is considered to be a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is expressed not only in the subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he has shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather than western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All of his principles in poetic composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mysterious one which also coincides with Pound's idea.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be described as an orientalist for his love and study of eastern cultures. Before he became acquainted with Chinese, he was captured by the concise but rich connotation contained in traditional Chinese culture. His interest in traditional Chinese poems began with ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction to oriental art（郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating traditional Chinese poem, he formed his own principles of poem composing. He believed that poem should not be written with superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices in the use of images and he was known for his superimposition of images.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').<br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images very well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is well used to paint a picture of late autumn and arouse feelings of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating to leave, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey abstract melancholy just like Chinese classical poem. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'', it has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color images. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 repeated words in the original poem but Pound only kept the repeated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his great attention to color image although he didn't mention it in his essay (''Cathy'').--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），94).<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to the use of images. Yet because of Wen Yiduo's experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we can assume that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choices for image based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was in school. Later deeply influenced by ideas of vernacular poem composition highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that he should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized that too direct expression would lose its hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of studying Tang poem. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, in his opinion, free verse is the best choice due to their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
In his comments on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator of using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then put his belief in translation into practice in his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
To maintain the characteristics of the original work, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou believed that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, in order to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into the Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can find the translated version is even more concise and has clear rhythm to form music. To form a parallel structure and a clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to conform to both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are the words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between looseness and tense within the poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on rhyme and rhythm in poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' for an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose rather than a rhymed poem, and to that extent his emphasis is more on the other side as he himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't make it a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sound is one of them. The poetry of sound could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he believed that images can be conveyed and he devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (闻一多 1926，1).<br />
<br />
Thus we can see that rhyme and rhythm are as important to Wen Yiduo as images, for he considered these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feelings. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he had no preference between the two, yet, in Pound's view, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo valued music so much that he once said that some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language because he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient souls with decoration on a modern cover. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another vessel, they may lose their favor.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 05:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛 2007，55-56).<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasting colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳 2006，85). <br />
<br />
Pound's poetic translation are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. It can be traced back to Provence love songs, Japanese Haiku and traditional Chinese poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo was the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with traditional Chinese poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is considered as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well-composed poem.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(范守义 2004，101-102). <br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas on poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First of all this poem consists of two stanzas, in each of which the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but made a little alternation to achieve a better expression. In this line, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", in order to balance the length of sentences, the translator moved the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last line, "礼拜三我爱你—对—", to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is the line -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator split the line, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠".--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(范守义 2004，101-102).<br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza, but there is a dash to indicate it. Therefore, the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance of form as well as meaning. All these efforts of the translator aimed at achieving the aesthetic sense of architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），3).<br />
<br />
In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound demand beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose with loose forms, but Wen Yiduo's translation highlighted the structural balance and stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist has absorbed elements from traditional Chinese culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the superimposition of images. And as for his form of translation, it's looser than that of Wen Yiduo's, for although Ezra Pound required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" to be "balance". His order may exist in the location of his images but it does not have to be balance in numbers of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, even though Wen Yiduo was influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic features of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
Based on the comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we can know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using in his later works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he was a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works had a solid patriotic foundation, thus he always tried to maintain traditional Chinese culture and spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their own unique cultural background and are both ardent lovers of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in their literary expressions, but there are also differences that reflect their own cultural identity like those we discovered in their own writings and translations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.英文文献后面需要添加中文--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste. ''Poetry''.<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China Foreign Affairs University'' 2004(04):98-107.<br />
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.<br />
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic<br />
*Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.(Nida 1984：21）<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015:5)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015:7)<br />
<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016：14）<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.(Fu Weici 1994:12)<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994:136)<br />
<br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.(Fu 1994:198)<br />
<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.(Guo Xiaoling 2014:4)<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.(Guo 2014:4)<br />
<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. (Cao Jing 2013:2)<br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”<br />
<br />
Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control. (Cao Jing 2013:2)<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997;2）<br />
<br />
Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”<br />
<br />
It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.(Sun 1997：2）<br />
<br />
Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”<br />
<br />
“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014:31）<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”<br />
<br />
The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.（Wang 2014:31）<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: “She was desire.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014:32）<br />
<br />
Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”<br />
<br />
The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014:33）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011:54）<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
=====4.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation=====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011:55）<br />
<br />
In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91) <br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis. <br />
<br />
The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.<br />
<br />
Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. <br />
<br />
In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. <br />
<br />
In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. <br />
<br />
Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. <br />
<br />
However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. <br />
<br />
In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. <br />
<br />
In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). <br />
<br />
Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=115710History of Translation Studies 112020-12-19T12:26:09Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI ==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this chapter gives a detailed overview on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this chapter makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this chapter argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the discipline construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) While, translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the grammer rule of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. Through translation practices, people summarize principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choosing of words and sentences and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present an all-round explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) <br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and full understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining and guiding social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, its external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.<br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) <br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theories came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards being systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
<br />
From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church was hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero from the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the stylistic characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, a representative of translators during this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There were also many representatives in this period. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) They are: the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of the development of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in the process of translation. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. Firstly, do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while secondly, make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation proposed by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation, and making elaborations on them. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) <br />
<br />
During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
During this period, translations in commerce circles, diplomatic affairs, science and technology and other professional fields witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theories emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is the "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages in many aspects instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and he also discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theories. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Being different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods were profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, translation theories in this period were practical.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward the concept of "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great deal of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the same meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) <br />
<br />
Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theories are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of human. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation to this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between China and West in their translation histories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) <br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the differences in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures have always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarities between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
It can be reflected in the striking similarities between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents to be similar with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides are independent from each other, but they share some commonalities. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions to convey the content of the source language,which the target reader is accustomed to. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the foreign language features, and absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be used separately. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original texts, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
This chapter holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarities between them have drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
The three principles of Tytler pose requirements on the translator in three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equal to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated the importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. Therefore, Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a complete representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, the English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions of the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should accurately reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the differences between Chinese and Western way of thinking are universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of translation experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own laws of development, which is proved by the similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this chapter proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation system, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences are more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker, and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass, and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for descendants, including translations of literature and theory works. From the time line, the records of his translation activities are much earlier than his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:13, 16 December 2020 (UTC)徐梦蝶修改<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation, and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation, hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation, as well as translation criticism.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, translations of two categories have distinct purposes. （Chen 2000, 289）--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literary workers standing with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation with the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. From his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to be the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept, literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me,(这里是自己翻译的原文吧，我觉得是不是可以附加上中文的原文？) there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. From Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and to introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammar, and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers when they treat foreign texts. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, the other purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and the other is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not ideal, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance, retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied of my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303). " In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appear. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and highlight the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to rotten apples. As for previous methods, once there was anywhere rotten in an apple, people would discard it completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also be taken into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from “the survival of the fittest” advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese, and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change the original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and in vernacular Chinese with translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first (to march to a different drummer)? and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
u Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation， as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that to enlighten Chinese people and to save the old China by learning from foreign literary works, promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
(这里可以分两段)--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. <br />
<br />
The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Keywords is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题目 is missing===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。<br />
<br />
理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. <br />
<br />
The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. <br />
<br />
In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” <br />
<br />
For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. <br />
<br />
What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. <br />
<br />
The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
<br />
<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. <br />
<br />
Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.<br />
<br />
Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. <br />
<br />
As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
<br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. <br />
<br />
The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. <br />
<br />
From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. <br />
<br />
However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. <br />
<br />
Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
<br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. <br />
<br />
The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. <br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. <br />
<br />
Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. <br />
<br />
It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
<br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
<br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. <br />
<br />
When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. <br />
<br />
After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. <br />
<br />
But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
<br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.<br />
<br />
Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
摘要需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. <br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(<span style="color:red">practices</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. <br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), researches(<span style="color:red">studies</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). <br />
<br />
As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction(<span style="color:red">directions</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11). <br />
<br />
In order to provide some new(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text(<span style="color:red">texts</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52). <br />
<br />
The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort(<span style="color:red">efforts</span>), Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a(<span style="color:red">an essential</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features(<span style="color:red">language features of subtitle translation</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493). <br />
<br />
2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>) films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247). <br />
<br />
After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather(<span style="color:red">''Western Leather''</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However(<span style="color:red">Moreover</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles(<span style="color:red">principle</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze(<span style="color:red">analyzes them</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, (<span style="color:red">focusing on</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. <br />
<br />
In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece(<span style="color:red">masterpieces</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine(<span style="color:red">Ihe company</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere (<span style="color:red">in the world</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. <br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions(<span style="color:red">, key points of Eco-translatology theory</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC).<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically(<span style="color:red">grammatical</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(<span style="color:red">in</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 <br />
<br />
ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse(<span style="color:red">various</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
From the(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay (<span style="color:red">pay s[ecial</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference(<span style="color:red">differences</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC) or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 <br />
<br />
ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. <br />
<br />
After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River(<span style="color:red">Yangtze River</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.<br />
<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary (<span style="color:red">achievements</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that (<span style="color:red">people or</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 <br />
<br />
ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, (<span style="color:red">which is</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad(<span style="color:red">broader</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or (<span style="color:red">or an</span>) enterprise--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. <br />
<br />
In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information (<span style="color:red">information above</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 <br />
<br />
ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a (<span style="color:red">an advertising video promoting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples(<span style="color:red">in the video</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC), three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 <br />
<br />
ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated(<span style="color:red">target</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. <br />
<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they(<span style="color:red">to be deleted</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) conduct(<span style="color:red">conducting</span>)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.<br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. <br />
<br />
The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
[1] Chen K., Yang F. F. Research on C-E Translation of Commercial Advertisement in Xi’an [J]. Education Research Frontier, 2019 (9: 1): 16-22.<br />
<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
<br />
[4] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
<br />
[5] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
<br />
[6] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
<br />
[7] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
<br />
[8] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
<br />
[10] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
<br />
[11] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
<br />
[15] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
<br />
[16] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
<br />
[17] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
<br />
[18] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
<br />
[19] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
<br />
[20] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
<br />
[21] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
<br />
[22] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
[23] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
<br />
[24] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
<br />
[25] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
[27] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
<br />
[28] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. <br />
<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories are useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references from the practice of translation theories.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。<br />
<br />
刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) <br />
<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing on the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation into the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)<br />
<br />
Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorist, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation ideals proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art are influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)<br />
<br />
However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that to one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed for the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation theory, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understands what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different to study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)<br />
<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)<br />
<br />
The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation into the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examine the process of the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process of cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)<br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate about three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation are faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference between their time and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conducting linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one that doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful of this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)<br />
<br />
Bell conforms to the definition of regarding translation as "the expression of another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product of paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)<br />
<br />
His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even in the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)<br />
<br />
As proposed in to the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definitions of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither delete nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) <br />
<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation are his efforts of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)<br />
<br />
The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)<br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy about this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)<br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories about reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation methods. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)<br />
<br />
According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy for words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impairs the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)<br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell brings in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent to different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: <br />
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;<br />
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell,1991:61)<br />
<br />
They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell,1991:68)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)<br />
<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intends to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)<br />
<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas about the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently conveying the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)<br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how styles influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later are profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)<br />
<br />
He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same functions so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)<br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest in the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in the process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of translation. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks translation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free translation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose of Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is trying to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believes that the judgement should be made by translators, translator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetry which is faithful to the original text.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. <br />
<br />
By comprising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also applies psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation processes remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982. <br />
<br />
Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993. <br />
<br />
Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses (''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses(''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. <br />
<br />
Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. <br />
<br />
Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. <br />
<br />
In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. <br />
<br />
Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. <br />
<br />
For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. <br />
<br />
By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. <br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.<br />
<br />
For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.<br />
<br />
Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar.<br />
<br />
Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.<br />
<br />
Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. <br />
<br />
Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. <br />
<br />
The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. <br />
<br />
However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. <br />
<br />
Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. <br />
<br />
In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. <br />
<br />
Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. <br />
<br />
Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. <br />
<br />
Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. <br />
<br />
For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. <br />
<br />
In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588== <br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
[suggestion: "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories.".(Here, this sentence can be changed into "Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories.)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
[suggestion:It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began.(Here, in this sentence, you may change the word "began" into "have begun".<br />
Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation,(Here, don't forget the quotation mark."Three Principles of Translation")<br />
……，and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. (Here, you may delete the word "of".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:(''xin''),(''da''),(''ya''),it's better to write it in Chinese"信","达","雅".<br />
Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea,…….(Here, you may change the word "sea" into "shipping".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:……fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style.(Here, you may change the word "elegance" into "elegant".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs,…….(Here, you may delete the second "as".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing.(Here, you may add a word "do" after the word "wrting".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation …….(Here, don't forget the quotation mark."Three Principles of Translation")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:……,more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation.(Here, you may change the word "requirements" into "demands".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
[suggestion:……,especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period.(Here, you may add a comma and a word "which" before "has increased".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun,…….(Here, you may change this sentence into "Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese , because he learned from Wu Rulun,……")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
[suggestion: He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically.(Here, you may delete the word "ideologically".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.(You may change this sentence into "Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.<br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71).<br />
<br />
[suggestion:the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them.(Here, you may change the word "adjust" into "adjusting".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
[suggesion:It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.(Here, you may change the word "their" into "his".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信).(Here, in this sentence, you may change the word "in" into "by".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:……were not put forward at the same time. (Here, you may change "at the same time" into "during the same era".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history.(You may change the word "profound" into "long".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style.(You may change this sentence into "In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is.")]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
[suggestion:On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients,…….(You may change this sentence into "On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advoted the ancients,……".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)<br />
<br />
However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking.(You may change the word "relationhsip" into "relation".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
[suggestion:When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler…….(Here, you may change the word "times" into "era".)]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
[Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
[ Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] 上海:上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
[Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] 北京:中国对外翻译出版有限公司. Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
[Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
[Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
[Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] 北京:商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
[Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] 北京:中央编译出版社 Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社.]--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 12:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85） <br />
<br />
He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese because it . Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. <br />
<br />
=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====Newmark====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）<br />
<br />
Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Both Are Translatable=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
<br />
=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)<br />
<br />
Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
<br />
=====Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.<br />
<br />
By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====Different Translation Theories=====<br />
<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
<br />
When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===My Views on Their Theories===<br />
<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)<br />
<br />
Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991). About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15) <br />
<br />
According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. <br />
<br />
Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) <br />
<br />
Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. <br />
<br />
The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. <br />
<br />
The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. <br />
<br />
The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9) <br />
<br />
Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. <br />
<br />
He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. <br />
<br />
He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. <br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. <br />
<br />
The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation. <br />
<br />
First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153) <br />
<br />
Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. <br />
<br />
The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. <br />
<br />
In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3). <br />
<br />
He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. <br />
<br />
In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. <br />
<br />
His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28). <br />
<br />
However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress. <br />
<br />
The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past. <br />
<br />
Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. <br />
<br />
There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. <br />
<br />
The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation. <br />
<br />
He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation. <br />
<br />
The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts. <br />
<br />
The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times. <br />
<br />
John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.<br />
<br />
He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.<br />
<br />
In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67). <br />
<br />
Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation. <br />
<br />
They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure. <br />
<br />
It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center> 写名字即可--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound was a representative poet and literary critic of the western literary scene in the early 20th century. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in the creation and study of poetry. At the same period, China was undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's theory of poetry is considered to be deeply influenced by Pound, but growing out of a specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from the comparison of their translation principles in terms of rhyme, image and structure.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），172-173). 引用的人名要用拼音--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need to recommend Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, a movement that deserves our attention is the vernacular literary movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in desperate need of opening up and learning from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（12），432-433). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal experience of studying painting and his contact with western poets at that time are materials worth discussing.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
These two figures are chosen for comparison in this paper because, first, they lived in the same period and both participated in two important literary movements of their time; second, both of them interpreted and applied traditional Chinese poems to modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, a comparison on their understanding of poetry translation is a way to learn the role of traditional Chinese culture in modern times and to better understand these two poets and translators.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers about them. Through close reading, we come to understand their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. The works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles(孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），37).<br />
<br />
Comparative study: since there are some commonalities between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in respectively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进 2005，133-134).<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles have been published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing was a watershed moment, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo was a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he was inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound in terms of a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1）,92).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo was a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing the social and cultural upheaval of the collapse of the old and the rise of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he had revolutionary ideas at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't directly participate in the May 4th Movement, he demonstrated his firm support for the students through a passionate and patriotic poem. Obviously, Wen Yiduo's literary creation cannot be separated from his social ideas. This can be revealed in the subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas on translation, they are also closely associated with his understanding of poetry creation, based on his personal learning and experiences.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），275-277).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. At first, he was a poet of classical poetry (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine''（松赋), ''Spring Willow''（春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to the creation of new poetry and criticized that classical poetry shouldn't be created and should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several attempts to create new poetry, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study in painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which was another transition for him. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, inspired partly by his experience studying painting and classical poetry in Chicago. Upon his return to China, he pioneered the creation of metrical poetry, linking the features of the new Western poetry with the image and structure of classical Chinese verse. He demanded beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. The best of his work to realize his principles can be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of making translation, which was to find an answer for his own time and to solve the problems that existed in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social dilemmas brought about by industrialism, cyclical economic crisis, the segregation of people from one another, etc (蒋洪新 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poetry translation should be word-for-word but maintain connotations behind it. He identified the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and that classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all can be a good source for imagist movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman to a father and himself to his son. Although he held some different opinions from his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression and direct use of vernacular language, while relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo has also mentioned that he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolutely free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what words contained and only a concise expression like poetry can produce stronger emotions with its natural, artistic syllables.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），202).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his studies in painting at the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. These experiences provided him with the opportunity to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of the images based on his study of both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of creation of new poems, poems of nature made up a large part of his work. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images from classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. Therefore, he decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was influenced by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets used direct language and free verse to paint the world vividly. Images were important to the Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平 2001,134-135). Therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, Wen Yiduo paid great attention to the use of image and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have a short excerpt of his early composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was one of his early vernacular poems and it's very direct and daily, but lacking in beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea of liberating human mind with a literary revolution, but he still reinforced the importance of literary form (北塔 2011,105-106). Therefore, Wen Yiduo criticize Hu Shi's writing as lacking in beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that the translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing to traditional Chinese painting, where the interplay of colors creates a new harmonious picture, and words should be like colors.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candle''as an example, he used the image of red candle to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is considered to be a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is expressed not only in the subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he has shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather than western fine brush work (辛春生 2011,28-29). All of his principles in poetic composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mysterious one which also coincides with Pound's idea.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），62).<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be described as an orientalist for his love and study of eastern cultures. Before he became acquainted with Chinese, he was captured by the concise but rich connotation contained in traditional Chinese culture. His interest in traditional Chinese poems began with ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction to oriental art（郭为 1988,110). In the process of translating traditional Chinese poem, he formed his own principles of poem composing. He believed that poem should not be written with superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices in the use of images and he was known for his superimposition of images.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').<br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images very well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is well used to paint a picture of late autumn and arouse feelings of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating to leave, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey abstract melancholy just like Chinese classical poem. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'', it has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color images. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 repeated words in the original poem but Pound only kept the repeated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his great attention to color image although he didn't mention it in his essay (''Cathy'').--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（1），94).<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to the use of images. Yet because of Wen Yiduo's experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we can assume that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choices for image based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was in school. Later deeply influenced by ideas of vernacular poem composition highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that he should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized that too direct expression would lose its hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of studying Tang poem. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, in his opinion, free verse is the best choice due to their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
In his comments on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator of using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结 2014,611). He then put his belief in translation into practice in his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54).<br />
<br />
To maintain the characteristics of the original work, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou believed that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, in order to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into the Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can find the translated version is even more concise and has clear rhythm to form music. To form a parallel structure and a clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to conform to both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are the words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between looseness and tense within the poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on rhyme and rhythm in poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' for an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose rather than a rhymed poem, and to that extent his emphasis is more on the other side as he himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't make it a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sound is one of them. The poetry of sound could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he believed that images can be conveyed and he devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translation.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (闻一多 1926，1).<br />
<br />
Thus we can see that rhyme and rhythm are as important to Wen Yiduo as images, for he considered these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feelings. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he had no preference between the two, yet, in Pound's view, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo valued music so much that he once said that some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language because he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient souls with decoration on a modern cover. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another vessel, they may lose their favor.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 05:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛 2007，55-56).<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasting colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳 2006，85). <br />
<br />
Pound's poetic translation are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. It can be traced back to Provence love songs, Japanese Haiku and traditional Chinese poetry.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo was the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with traditional Chinese poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is considered as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well-composed poem.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(范守义 2004，101-102). <br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas on poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First of all this poem consists of two stanzas, in each of which the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but made a little alternation to achieve a better expression. In this line, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", in order to balance the length of sentences, the translator moved the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last line, "礼拜三我爱你—对—", to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is the line -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator split the line, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠".--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(范守义 2004，101-102).<br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza, but there is a dash to indicate it. Therefore, the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance of form as well as meaning. All these efforts of the translator aimed at achieving the aesthetic sense of architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (孙党伯 袁春正 1993（2），3).<br />
<br />
In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound demand beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose with loose forms, but Wen Yiduo's translation highlighted the structural balance and stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist has absorbed elements from traditional Chinese culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the superimposition of images. And as for his form of translation, it's looser than that of Wen Yiduo's, for although Ezra Pound required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" to be "balance". His order may exist in the location of his images but it does not have to be balance in numbers of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, even though Wen Yiduo was influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic features of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
Based on the comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we can know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using in his later works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he was a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works had a solid patriotic foundation, thus he always tried to maintain traditional Chinese culture and spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their own unique cultural background and are both ardent lovers of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in their literary expressions, but there are also differences that reflect their own cultural identity like those we discovered in their own writings and translations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.英文文献后面需要添加中文--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste. ''Poetry''.<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China Foreign Affairs University'' 2004(04):98-107.<br />
*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.<br />
*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic<br />
*Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.(Nida 1984：21）<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015:5)<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015:7)<br />
<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016：14）<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.(Fu Weici 1994:12)<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994:136)<br />
<br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.(Fu 1994:198)<br />
<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.(Guo Xiaoling 2014:4)<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.(Guo 2014:4)<br />
<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. (Cao Jing 2013:2)<br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”<br />
<br />
Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control. (Cao Jing 2013:2)<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997;2）<br />
<br />
Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”<br />
<br />
It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.(Sun 1997：2）<br />
<br />
Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”<br />
<br />
“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014:31）<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”<br />
<br />
The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.（Wang 2014:31）<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: “She was desire.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014:32）<br />
<br />
Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”<br />
<br />
The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014:33）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011:54）<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
=====4.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation=====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011:55）<br />
<br />
In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91) <br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis. <br />
<br />
The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.<br />
<br />
Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. <br />
<br />
In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. <br />
<br />
In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. <br />
<br />
Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. <br />
<br />
However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. <br />
<br />
In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. <br />
<br />
In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). <br />
<br />
Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11367020201221 trans2020-12-17T11:54:48Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
<br />
Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
<br />
I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
<br />
作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
<br />
张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
<br />
阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
<br />
与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
<br />
This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
<br />
如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
<br />
小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
<br />
小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
<br />
The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
<br />
As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
<br />
这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
<br />
正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
<br />
金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
<br />
Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
<br />
In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
<br />
The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
<br />
最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
<br />
So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
<br />
''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
<br />
然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
<br />
Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
<br />
Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
<br />
Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
<br />
Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
<br />
它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
<br />
在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ] <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
<br />
我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
<br />
然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
<br />
在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
<br />
'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
<br />
In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
<br />
In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
<br />
Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
<br />
The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
<br />
1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
<br />
1. 特征<br />
<br />
1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
<br />
与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
<br />
“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
<br />
The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
<br />
进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
<br />
'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
<br />
王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''3.Trends<br />
<br />
3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
<br />
3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
<br />
4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
<br />
5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
<br />
狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
<br />
7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
<br />
8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
<br />
9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
<br />
10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
<br />
11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
<br />
2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
<br />
本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
<br />
"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11365820201221 trans2020-12-17T11:46:11Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Dan 彭丹 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
<br />
Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
<br />
I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
<br />
作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
<br />
张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
<br />
阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
<br />
与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
<br />
This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
<br />
如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
<br />
小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
<br />
小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
<br />
The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
<br />
As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
<br />
这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
<br />
正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
<br />
金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
<br />
Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
<br />
In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
<br />
The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
<br />
最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
<br />
So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
<br />
''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
<br />
然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
<br />
Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
<br />
Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
<br />
Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
<br />
Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.” <br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ] <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
<br />
我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
<br />
然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
<br />
在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
<br />
'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
<br />
In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
<br />
In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
<br />
Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
<br />
The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
<br />
1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
<br />
1. 特征<br />
<br />
1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
<br />
与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
<br />
“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
<br />
The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
<br />
进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
<br />
'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
<br />
王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''3.Trends<br />
<br />
3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
<br />
3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
<br />
4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
<br />
5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
<br />
狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
<br />
7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
<br />
8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
<br />
9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
<br />
10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
<br />
11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
<br />
2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
<br />
本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
<br />
"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112920History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T05:00:55Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. <br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. <br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. <br />
<br />
Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”<br />
<br />
Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control. <br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”<br />
<br />
It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.<br />
<br />
Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”<br />
<br />
“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”<br />
<br />
The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.<br />
<br />
Example 2: “She was desire.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.<br />
<br />
Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”<br />
<br />
The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
=====4.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation=====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.<br />
<br />
In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91) <br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
郭晓玲.从功能对等角度看《红楼梦》金陵判词的英译--比较三个译本[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2014.<br />
<br />
曹菁.“功能对等”理论在文学翻译中的应用--以小说《浮世浅游》的中译本为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2013.<br />
<br />
刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112919History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T04:59:45Z<p>Peng Dan: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. <br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world. <br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. <br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. <br />
<br />
Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”<br />
<br />
Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control. <br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”<br />
<br />
It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.<br />
<br />
Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”<br />
<br />
“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”<br />
<br />
The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.<br />
<br />
Example 2: “She was desire.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.<br />
<br />
Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”<br />
<br />
The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
=====4.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation=====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.<br />
<br />
In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91) <br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
郭晓玲.从功能对等角度看《红楼梦》金陵判词的英译--比较三个译本[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2014.<br />
<br />
曹菁.“功能对等”理论在文学翻译中的应用--以小说《浮世浅游》的中译本为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2013.<br />
<br />
刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112918History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T04:57:22Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. <br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world. <br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. <br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.<br />
<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”<br />
<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. <br />
<br />
Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”<br />
<br />
Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”<br />
<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
<br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
<br />
Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”<br />
<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control. <br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.<br />
<br />
Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。”<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”<br />
<br />
It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.<br />
<br />
Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”<br />
<br />
“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.<br />
<br />
====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====<br />
<br />
Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”<br />
<br />
The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.<br />
<br />
Example 2: “She was desire.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。<br />
<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.<br />
<br />
Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.” <br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”<br />
<br />
The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====<br />
<br />
Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”<br />
<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。” <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”<br />
<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.<br />
<br />
====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====<br />
<br />
=====4.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation=====<br />
<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.<br />
<br />
In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91) <br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
<br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====<br />
<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
<br />
李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
<br />
郭晓玲.从功能对等角度看《红楼梦》金陵判词的英译--比较三个译本[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2014.<br />
<br />
曹菁.“功能对等”理论在文学翻译中的应用--以小说《浮世浅游》的中译本为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2013.<br />
<br />
刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
<br />
孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
<br />
刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
<br />
顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
<br />
陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
<br />
王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
<br />
赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
<br />
王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
<br />
马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112916History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T04:39:03Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 3 A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. <br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world. <br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. <br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====4.1 A comparative Study on the meaning====<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112915History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T04:35:39Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 3.2 The Characteristics of the language */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. <br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world. <br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
<br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.<br />
<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express.<br />
<br />
Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. <br />
<br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions====<br />
<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
===3 A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112914History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T04:27:34Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1Research Background====<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
====1.2Literature Review====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
====1.3Research Methodology====<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1Introduction of Eugene Nida====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
====2.2Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
====2.3Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3. Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions===<br />
<br />
<br />
====3.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence====<br />
<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.<br />
<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. <br />
<br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.<br />
<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world. <br />
<br />
====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112912History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T04:05:32Z<p>Peng Dan: /* I.Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
1.1Research Background:<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
1.2.Literature Review:<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
1.3.Research Methodology:<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===II. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Introduction of Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112911History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T04:03:36Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 Peng Dan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
1.Research Background:<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
2.Literature Review:<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
3.Research Methodology:<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===II. The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
Introduction of Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory<br />
<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
<br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969.<br />
<br />
The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad<br />
<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
=== 3.The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112910History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T03:56:43Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 关键词 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 PengDan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
<br />
1.Research Background:<br />
<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
2.Literature Review:<br />
<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
<br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
3.Research Methodology:<br />
<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
<br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
<br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
===II The Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112905History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T03:46:09Z<p>Peng Dan: /* 摘要 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 PengDan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112904History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T03:44:03Z<p>Peng Dan: /* KEY WORDS: */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 PengDan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112903History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T03:42:12Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Abstract */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
彭丹 PengDan Student No.202020080631 日语语言文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_11&diff=112899History of Translation Studies 112020-12-16T03:38:08Z<p>Peng Dan: /* KEY WORDS: */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. <br />
<br />
During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. <br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。<br />
<br />
在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。<br />
<br />
本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) <br />
<br />
Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 Translation 英语笔译==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) <br />
<br />
The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). <br />
<br />
John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).奈达论翻译 [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]<br />
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). 西方翻译理论通史[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] <br />
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). 中国译学大辞典 [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534<br />
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62<br />
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108<br />
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89<br />
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42<br />
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81<br />
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132<br />
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1986). From One Language to Another Thomas Nelson Incorporated<br />
*Eugene A. Nida.(1964).Toward a Science of Translating Leiden: E. J. Brill <br />
*Eugene A. Nida,(1969). Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill <br />
*Peter·Newmark. (1991).About Translation Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd, <br />
*Newmark, Peter.(1988). A Text Book of Translation London: Prentice Hall International (UK)<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student No.202020080657 英美文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). <br />
<br />
Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (蒋洪新，2001：78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). <br />
<br />
Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (闻一多, 1926). <br />
<br />
In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever (1902)<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（《时事新报·学灯》 1927）<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角"."To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (闻一多，《诗歌节奏的研究》). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste''). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me? <br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？（ ——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报 文艺周刊》第9期）<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". <br />
<br />
Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
<br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=112437History of Translation Studies 32020-12-14T11:59:25Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br />
<br />
==Key words==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br />
<br />
==关键词==<br />
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br />
<br />
==(1)Introduction==<br />
<br />
===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
<br />
===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
<br />
Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
<br />
Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
<br />
Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
<br />
==II.Similarities and Differences==<br />
<br />
===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
<br />
Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
<br />
In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
<br />
However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
<br />
'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
<br />
In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
<br />
'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
<br />
'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
<br />
'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
<br />
First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
<br />
In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
<br />
'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
<br />
'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
<br />
Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
<br />
'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
<br />
'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
<br />
Bibliography：<br />
<br />
[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
<br />
[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
<br />
[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
<br />
[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
<br />
[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
<br />
[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
<br />
[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
<br />
[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
<br />
=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br />
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br />
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
'''Research background'''<br />
<br />
Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
<br />
'''Significance of the study'''<br />
<br />
By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
<br />
This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
<br />
'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
<br />
'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
<br />
'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
<br />
'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
<br />
The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
<br />
Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
<br />
“总统的史学家......”<br />
<br />
It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
<br />
'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
<br />
From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
<br />
Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
<br />
It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
<br />
'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
<br />
This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
<br />
Example：“车来了！”<br />
<br />
“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
<br />
'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
<br />
The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
<br />
It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
<br />
'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
<br />
The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
<br />
The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
<br />
'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
<br />
In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
<br />
''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
<br />
Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
<br />
Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
<br />
无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
<br />
If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
<br />
'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
<br />
Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
<br />
Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
<br />
这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
<br />
This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
<br />
'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
<br />
Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
<br />
OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
<br />
农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
<br />
开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
<br />
The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
<br />
There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
<br />
The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
<br />
German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
<br />
But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
<br />
Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
<br />
Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
<br />
The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
<br />
Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
<br />
Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion''' <br />
<br />
By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
<br />
Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
<br />
Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
<br />
陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
<br />
范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
<br />
李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
<br />
张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
<br />
张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
<br />
张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
<br />
=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
<br />
The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
<br />
'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
<br />
Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
<br />
(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
<br />
“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
<br />
In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
<br />
From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
<br />
(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
<br />
S: “white as snow”<br />
<br />
T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
<br />
From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
<br />
Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
<br />
(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
<br />
On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
<br />
'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
<br />
According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
<br />
[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
<br />
[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
<br />
[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
<br />
[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
<br />
[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
<br />
[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
<br />
[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
<br />
[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
<br />
=Theory and Practise=<br />
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br />
<br />
'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br />
<br />
A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
<br />
From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
<br />
'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
<br />
A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
<br />
According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
<br />
“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
<br />
(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
<br />
(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
<br />
Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
<br />
B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
<br />
Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
<br />
C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
<br />
D.Venuti<br />
<br />
Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
<br />
“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
<br />
To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
<br />
A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
<br />
In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
<br />
Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
<br />
From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
<br />
江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
<br />
Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
<br />
他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
<br />
The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
<br />
Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
<br />
So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
<br />
Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
<br />
(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:'''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
<br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
<br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
<br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
<br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
<br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
<br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Works Cited'''<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br />
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br />
<br />
Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br />
<br />
Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
<br />
===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br />
<br />
Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br />
<br />
According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br />
<br />
Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br />
1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br />
2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br />
3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br />
4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br />
<br />
In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br />
<br />
Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br />
<br />
===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br />
<br />
As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br />
<br />
====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br />
<br />
The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br />
<br />
Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br />
<br />
====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br />
<br />
The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br />
<br />
1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br />
<br />
2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br />
<br />
3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br />
<br />
====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br />
<br />
The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br />
<br />
1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br />
<br />
2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br />
<br />
3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br />
<br />
====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br />
<br />
The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
<br />
According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
<br />
===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br />
<br />
As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br />
<br />
====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br />
<br />
It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br />
=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br />
In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu & Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br />
<br />
Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br />
<br />
After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br />
Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===references===<br />
<br />
==An analysis of main factors influencing the choice of translation strategies, the example of Hongloumeng 解帆 Xie Fan==<br />
<br />
==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics.and compares to the interpretation research in the West,the study of interpretation in China started relatively late.the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus, bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born. Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br />
<br />
===2.2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br />
<br />
2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west<br />
<br />
2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china<br />
<br />
===3.The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research===<br />
<br />
===4.The development trend, characteristics and prospect of Chinese interpretation research===<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br />
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br />
We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed. This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br />
The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br />
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br />
In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br />
<br />
===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br />
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far. The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication. By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win). It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons." The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory. "The May Fourth Literary Revolution replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br />
<br />
===The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br />
<br />
====1.The first translation climax====<br />
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10)) (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br />
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br />
<br />
====2.The second translation climax====<br />
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br />
The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br />
"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br />
Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br />
<br />
====3.The third Translation Climax====<br />
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. "During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br />
A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"<br />
In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br />
The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. 宁波教育学院学报[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br />
<br />
Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br />
<br />
Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br />
<br />
Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br />
<br />
Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br />
<br />
Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br />
<br />
Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br />
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br />
===题目===<br />
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br />
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br />
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br />
<br />
In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br />
<br />
He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br />
<br />
The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br />
<br />
====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br />
<br />
Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br />
<br />
As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br />
The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br />
<br />
2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br />
<br />
Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br />
<br />
Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br />
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br />
<br />
In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br />
<br />
Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br />
<br />
When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br />
<br />
In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br />
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br />
<br />
It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br />
<br />
Examples of homophonic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br />
<br />
There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br />
<br />
Examples of homographic pun:<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br />
<br />
There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br />
<br />
Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br />
<br />
Examples of palindrome:<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
*Madam，I’ m Adam.<br />
*No x in Nixon.<br />
*上海自来水来自海上。<br />
<br />
These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br />
<br />
The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br />
<br />
From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br />
<br />
2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br />
<br />
Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br />
<br />
Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br />
<br />
The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 9:<br />
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br />
<br />
*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br />
<br />
*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br />
<br />
*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br />
<br />
In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br />
<br />
However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br />
<br />
The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br />
<br />
Example 10:<br />
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br />
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br />
<br />
The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br />
<br />
Example 11:<br />
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br />
<br />
*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br />
<br />
*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br />
<br />
*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br />
<br />
These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br />
<br />
All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br />
<br />
All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br />
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br />
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br />
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br />
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br />
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
<br />
<br />
<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br />
<br />
The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled "The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature", which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
<br />
===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1.1 Ideology'''<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br />
<br />
'''1.2 Poetics'''<br />
<br />
Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br />
According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
<br />
'''1.3 Patronage'''<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br />
Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br />
<br />
===2. Cases Study===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br />
<br />
Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br />
<br />
Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship". Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br />
<br />
Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br />
English version: Hewlett and Packard<br />
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br />
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br />
Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br />
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br />
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br />
<br />
Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.<br />
In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br />
(Act II, Scene IV)<br />
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br />
To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br />
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br />
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br />
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br />
<br />
Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br />
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br />
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br />
By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br />
Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br />
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br />
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br />
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br />
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br />
Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br />
<br />
Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br />
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br />
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br />
The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br />
Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br />
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br />
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br />
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br />
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br />
(Act I, Scene I)<br />
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br />
I would prefer him to a better place.<br />
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br />
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br />
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br />
Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br />
<br />
Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br />
<br />
Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br />
<br />
Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br />
<br />
Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br />
<br />
Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br />
Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br />
<br />
Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br />
<br />
Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br />
<br />
Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br />
<br />
Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br />
<br />
Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br />
<br />
<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
“What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br />
<br />
===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br />
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br />
Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br />
<br />
Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br />
Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br />
<br />
All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
<br />
===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br />
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br />
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br />
<br />
According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br />
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br />
<br />
According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br />
<br />
The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br />
<br />
It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br />
It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br />
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br />
<br />
===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br />
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br />
<br />
Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br />
<br />
Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br />
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br />
<br />
Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br />
<br />
Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br />
<br />
Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br />
<br />
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information, but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. <br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br />
praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.<br />
In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute.<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. (Liu Junping2009,140) Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. (Eugene Nida 1964) “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text.<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. <br />
2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration.<br />
3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues.<br />
4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. <br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader’s Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. <br />
For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
(1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’ s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation.<br />
(2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination.<br />
(3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”.<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. <br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. (Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. <br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form.<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned.<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tanzaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Catford, J.C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
<br />
[2]姜丽.奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较[J].文教资料,2010(05):44-46.<br />
<br />
[3] Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London: Routledge, 200[…]<br />
<br />
[4]穆雷.卡特福德论翻译和教学[J].中国翻译. 1990(05).<br />
<br />
[5] Nida, Eugene. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
[6]孙佳.奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨[J].海外英语,2017(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
[7]孙晓曈.卡特福德翻译理论综述[J].读书文摘,2016(08):107.<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br />
<br />
<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translate poems from Chinese to English and French " and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories : “art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry”, which can be divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory ans Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be divided in five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong’s four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本，分为五部分来浅析他的翻译理论。首先，我们将简单介绍许渊冲，然后，我们将分别介绍他的四个理论，最后我们将探讨中国学者对许渊冲翻译理论的不同评价。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literary and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc. He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: “Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.” (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) and “ Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.” (许钧,等 2010:270). As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including“Three-beauty Theory " (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), “Three-Transformation Theory” (generalization, equalization and particularization)，“Three-Purpose Theory” (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),“Three-Resemblance Theory“(resemblance of sense, resemblance of sound and resemblance of form), “Theory of Rivalry”, etc. <br />
<br />
Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The “Three-Beauty Theory”, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': “There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes(Lu Xun, 1976). In Xu Yuanchong’s opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last (Xu Yuanchong, 2015). And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司 Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co. LTD.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010)文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社 Nanjing: Yilin Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
<br />
当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br />
<br />
===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
<br />
In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br />
<br />
===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br />
From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br />
<br />
===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br />
Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br />
Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br />
<br />
====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br />
It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br />
Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br />
Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled "multimodal", the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br />
<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br />
<br />
===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br />
The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br />
<br />
====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br />
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br />
Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br />
<br />
====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br />
Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br />
<br />
===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br />
<br />
====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br />
<br />
====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
<br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br />
combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. <br />
Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br />
<br />
===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br />
<br />
Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br />
<br />
O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br />
Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br />
<br />
Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br />
<br />
陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br />
<br />
陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br />
<br />
胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br />
<br />
黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br />
<br />
刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br />
<br />
李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br />
<br />
孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br />
<br />
许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br />
<br />
曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br />
<br />
张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br />
<br />
朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
<br />
==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Translation and Translation Study====<br />
<br />
In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br />
<br />
A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br />
<br />
Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br />
<br />
Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br />
<br />
Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br />
<br />
Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br />
<br />
====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br />
<br />
Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br />
<br />
Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br />
<br />
Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br />
<br />
===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br />
<br />
====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br />
<br />
1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br />
<br />
At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br />
The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br />
<br />
Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br />
At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
<br />
3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br />
<br />
The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br />
Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br />
<br />
4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br />
<br />
Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br />
According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br />
Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br />
<br />
Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br />
Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br />
Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br />
<br />
1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br />
<br />
The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br />
<br />
2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br />
<br />
The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br />
<br />
The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br />
<br />
The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br />
<br />
4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br />
<br />
During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br />
<br />
====Similarities and Differences====<br />
<br />
By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br />
<br />
First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br />
<br />
Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br />
<br />
The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br />
<br />
First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br />
<br />
===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br />
====Domestication and Doreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br />
<br />
Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br />
<br />
Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br />
<br />
This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br />
<br />
====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br />
<br />
Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall. <br />
<br />
Tytler, Alexander Fraser. (1790). ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. London: Dent. <br />
<br />
Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 别芳芳, 黄勤. (2008). 多雷和泰特勒翻译原则之比较研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation Principles of Dolet and Tytler]. ''外语教育'' Foreign Language Education. <br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua 冯庆华. (2002). ''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Coursebook on Translation]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素: 异化与归化 [Cultural Elements in Translation: Domestication and Foreignization]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Li Yuntao 李云涛. (2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br />
<br />
Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br />
<br />
Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br />
<br />
Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br />
<br />
Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br />
<br />
Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br />
<br />
Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br />
<br />
Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br />
<br />
Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br />
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Lu Xun, as China’s renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br />
<br />
===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br />
<br />
====Purpose of Translation====<br />
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br />
<br />
For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br />
<br />
For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br />
<br />
About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br />
<br />
====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br />
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br />
<br />
In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br />
<br />
====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br />
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br />
<br />
There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br />
<br />
====Retranslation====<br />
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br />
<br />
The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br />
<br />
====Translation Criticism====<br />
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br />
<br />
Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br />
<br />
===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br />
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br />
<br />
====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====<br />
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Language=====<br />
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br />
<br />
=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br />
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermedium" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)<br />
<br />
Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to march to a different drummer and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect though different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br />
<br />
====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br />
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br />
<br />
In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br />
<br />
In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br />
<br />
In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br />
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br />
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br />
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br />
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br />
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br />
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br />
*Huang Xiaojun. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization"[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br />
*Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture"[鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br />
*Xu Lan. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory"[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br />
===关键词===<br />
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br />
===2 Eco-translatology===<br />
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br />
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br />
Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br />
===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br />
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br />
What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br />
What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br />
===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br />
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br />
However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br />
Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br />
As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br />
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br />
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br />
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br />
Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br />
Flexibility.<br />
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br />
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br />
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br />
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br />
我知道你天性善良，<br />
-I said,are you being a smartass? <br />
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br />
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br />
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br />
-Do my time... and get out. <br />
服完刑...就走人<br />
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br />
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br />
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br />
有个律师在多管闲事<br />
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br />
对这种人不要心慈手软<br />
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br />
<br />
===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br />
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br />
有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br />
-Something more is going on here. <br />
这背后有阴谋<br />
-This is desperation,Michael. <br />
你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br />
-You're grabbing at straws. <br />
是想抓救命稻草<br />
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br />
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br />
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br />
An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br />
Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br />
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br />
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br />
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br />
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br />
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br />
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br />
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br />
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br />
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br />
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br />
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br />
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br />
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br />
你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br />
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br />
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br />
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br />
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br />
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br />
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br />
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br />
<br />
Original and Translation: <br />
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br />
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br />
-Is that the best you can do?<br />
你就这么点能耐？<br />
-all: Shut up!<br />
闭嘴!<br />
-Berwick: Not one more word!<br />
谁也别出声！<br />
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br />
However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br />
<br />
[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br />
<br />
[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br />
<br />
[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br />
<br />
[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br />
<br />
[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br />
<br />
[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br />
<br />
[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing Student No. 202070080650==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br />
<br />
本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br />
<br />
This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br />
<br />
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===2 Literature Review===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br />
<br />
Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br />
<br />
Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br />
<br />
===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br />
<br />
According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br />
<br />
All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br />
<br />
In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br />
<br />
Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br />
<br />
The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br />
<br />
In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br />
<br />
===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br />
<br />
Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br />
TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br />
<br />
It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br />
<br />
Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br />
<br />
Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br />
TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br />
<br />
The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br />
<br />
Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br />
<br />
From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br />
As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br />
<br />
Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br />
TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br />
<br />
This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br />
In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br />
<br />
Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br />
<br />
Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br />
TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br />
<br />
This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br />
<br />
===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br />
<br />
The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br />
<br />
Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br />
TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br />
<br />
This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br />
<br />
For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br />
<br />
From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br />
<br />
Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br />
TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br />
<br />
The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br />
From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br />
<br />
===4 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br />
<br />
With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br />
[2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2004(2): 106-117.<br />
[3] Hu, Gengshen. Adaptation in Consecutive Interpreting [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2006 (1): 3-12.<br />
[4] Hu, K., O’Brien, Kenny, D. A Reception Study of Machine Translated Subtitles for MOOCs [D]. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 2019.<br />
[5] Yu, Haikou. Film Translation in China: Features and Technical Constraints of Dubbing and Subtitling English into Chinese [J]. Bable-revue International De La Traduction-International Journal of Translation, 2015 (61: 4): 493-510.<br />
[6] Zheng, Jie. Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br />
[7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br />
[8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br />
[9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br />
[10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br />
[11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br />
[12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br />
[13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br />
[14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br />
[15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br />
[16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br />
[17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br />
[18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br />
[19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br />
[20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br />
[21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br />
[22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br />
[23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br />
[24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br />
[25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br />
[26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br />
[27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br />
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br />
<br />
===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br />
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br />
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Dao An(314-385AD)<br />
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br />
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br />
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br />
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br />
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br />
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br />
Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br />
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br />
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br />
② Translating the words of a saint.<br />
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br />
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br />
In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br />
<br />
Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br />
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengrui(371-438AD)<br />
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Sengyou(445-518AD)<br />
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br />
<br />
Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br />
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br />
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br />
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br />
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br />
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br />
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br />
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br />
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br />
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br />
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br />
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br />
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br />
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br />
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br />
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br />
<br />
Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br />
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br />
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br />
<br />
===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br />
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br />
<br />
Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br />
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br />
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br />
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br />
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br />
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br />
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br />
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br />
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br />
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br />
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br />
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br />
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br />
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br />
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br />
<br />
(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br />
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br />
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br />
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br />
④The basic level in translation is word.<br />
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br />
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br />
<br />
(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br />
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br />
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br />
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br />
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br />
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br />
②The translator must know SL and TL.<br />
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br />
④The translator must use the common speech.<br />
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br />
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br />
work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br />
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br />
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.<br />
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br />
Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br />
Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem.<br />
In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br />
Tytler set up three basic principles:<br />
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br />
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br />
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br />
<br />
In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br />
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br />
<br />
Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br />
<br />
(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br />
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".<br />
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."<br />
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br />
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".<br />
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br />
<br />
(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br />
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br />
<br />
(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br />
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br />
<br />
===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br />
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
<br />
Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br />
<br />
Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br />
<br />
Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.<br />
<br />
Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br />
<br />
Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.<br />
<br />
Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br />
<br />
Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br />
<br />
<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process. Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories. <br />
A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br />
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model. Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art. <br />
<br />
===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br />
To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde'stranslation thoery, firtly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====<br />
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product. The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product. The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. <br />
<br />
In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.<br />
<br />
Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====<br />
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences". So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature."<br />
<br />
As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. <br />
<br />
As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation. <br />
<br />
Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====<br />
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the "good" translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process. <br />
<br />
According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.<br />
<br />
Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(1982: 303)<br />
<br />
“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（1993:223）<br />
<br />
The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. <br />
<br />
Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. <br />
<br />
Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. <br />
<br />
The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". <br />
<br />
《红楼梦》卷头诗<br />
<br />
满纸荒唐言，<br />
<br />
一把辛酸泪。<br />
<br />
都云作者痴，<br />
<br />
谁解其中味？<br />
<br />
1.Liu Zhongde<br />
<br />
The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions <br />
<br />
Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,<br />
<br />
Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,<br />
<br />
People, one and all, call the author insane ,<br />
<br />
But who understands how his words one should explain?<br />
<br />
2. David Hawkes: <br />
<br />
Pages full of idle words <br />
<br />
Penned with hot and bitter tears <br />
<br />
All men call the author fool <br />
<br />
None his secret message hears. <br />
<br />
3. 杨宪益：<br />
<br />
Pages full of fantastic talk <br />
<br />
Penned with bitter tears<br />
<br />
All men call the author mad <br />
<br />
None his message hears. <br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====<br />
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps: firstly, the analysis of the source language text;<br />
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. They can be presented as the extremes of five continua: <br />
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;<br />
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;<br />
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English <br />
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;<br />
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.<br />
Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.<br />
Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. <br />
<br />
In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work. He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow , love or hatred , and possess the same nature , world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. <br />
<br />
Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry. <br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.<br />
<br />
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. <br />
Liu Zhongde, an advocator of “rendering poetry as poetry”, also puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese . As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry. However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved; secondly, under this premise, the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm.<br />
<br />
==='''Reference '''===<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)<br />
<br />
Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.<br />
<br />
Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.<br />
<br />
Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.<br />
<br />
Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.<br />
<br />
Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600==<br />
<br />
<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses, he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses, we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达； 金堤<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:<br />
<br />
“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “<br />
<br />
Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===<br />
<br />
====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:<br />
<br />
A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)<br />
<br />
In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:<br />
<br />
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).<br />
<br />
In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)<br />
<br />
In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.<br />
<br />
In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic. <br />
<br />
"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====<br />
<br />
Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.<br />
When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)<br />
<br />
When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:<br />
<br />
In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)<br />
<br />
This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:<br />
<br />
The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).<br />
<br />
In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:<br />
<br />
The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).<br />
<br />
In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
====Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====<br />
<br />
What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====<br />
<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.<br />
<br />
Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.<br />
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.<br />
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）<br />
<br />
-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。<br />
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。<br />
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)<br />
<br />
The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:<br />
<br />
“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).<br />
<br />
Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message. <br />
<br />
Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:<br />
<br />
“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”<br />
<br />
Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.<br />
<br />
===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====<br />
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:<br />
<br />
“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?<br />
<br />
Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”<br />
<br />
In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:<br />
<br />
(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)<br />
<br />
V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥， 可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.<br />
<br />
(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.<br />
<br />
V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）<br />
<br />
V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）<br />
<br />
In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.<br />
<br />
=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====<br />
<br />
Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard. <br />
<br />
However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree. <br />
<br />
A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.<br />
<br />
In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:<br />
<br />
KJV:<br />
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)<br />
<br />
TEV:<br />
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)<br />
<br />
NEB (The New English Bible):<br />
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11) <br />
<br />
Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.<br />
<br />
At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).<br />
<br />
=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====<br />
<br />
There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.<br />
<br />
Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:<br />
<br />
Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).<br />
<br />
The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).<br />
<br />
Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but<br />
<br />
it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning- oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.<br />
<br />
De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.<br />
<br />
Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.<br />
<br />
Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.<br />
<br />
Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.<br />
<br />
Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[<尤利西斯的两个中译本研究>]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br />
<br />
<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译，笔译与口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br />
<br />
This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
===2. Definition of Translation===<br />
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br />
<br />
First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br />
<br />
Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br />
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br />
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, "Xin" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "reach" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br />
<br />
Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br />
<br />
Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br />
<br />
Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br />
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br />
<br />
===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br />
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br />
<br />
Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br />
<br />
===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br />
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. (Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)<br />
<br />
====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br />
(1) Differences in measurement criteria<br />
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth and smooth. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency. The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly. (Li Jinze 2010,23)<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result, the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)<br />
<br />
(2) The difference of translation process<br />
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100).<br />
<br />
Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br />
<br />
(3) Different requirements for interpreters<br />
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on.(Ma Chao 2010,19) However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br />
<br />
①Psychological quality<br />
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."(Li Jinze 2010,102) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)<br />
<br />
②Listening<br />
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149) For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br />
<br />
③Memory and shorthand ability<br />
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
<br />
*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br />
<br />
*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br />
<br />
*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br />
<br />
*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br />
<br />
*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br />
<br />
*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br />
<br />
*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br />
<br />
*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br />
<br />
*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br />
<br />
<center>郭露 Guo Lu</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br />
<br />
=== 关键字===<br />
<br />
翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br />
<br />
In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br />
<br />
===Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br />
<br />
(1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br />
<br />
Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br />
<br />
Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br />
<br />
Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br />
<br />
Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory<br />
<br />
Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br />
<br />
===Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br />
<br />
Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br />
<br />
“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br />
<br />
2. Translation Methods<br />
<br />
Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br />
<br />
(1) Omission<br />
<br />
In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
(2) Addition<br />
<br />
During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br />
<br />
彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(3) Alteration<br />
<br />
Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br />
<br />
日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br />
<br />
Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
(4) Adaptation<br />
<br />
Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br />
<br />
For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br />
<br />
密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br />
<br />
3. Case Analysis<br />
<br />
Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br />
<br />
Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br />
<br />
Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br />
<br />
Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br />
<br />
4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory<br />
<br />
During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br />
<br />
In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===<br />
<br />
Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br />
<br />
Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br />
<br />
To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br />
<br />
* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br />
<br />
* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br />
<br />
* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br />
<br />
* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br />
<br />
* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.<br />
<br />
* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br />
<br />
* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br />
<br />
* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br />
<br />
* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br />
<br />
* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580==<br />
<center> Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br />
<br />
In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br />
<br />
===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br />
<br />
In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br />
<br />
According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br />
<br />
The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br />
<br />
===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br />
<br />
Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br />
<br />
In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br />
<br />
Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540 : The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in On the Establishment of Translation Academy (《拟设翻译书院议》): The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br />
<br />
It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br />
<br />
From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br />
<br />
===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br />
<br />
By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br />
<br />
Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br />
<br />
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br />
<br />
Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br />
<br />
In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br />
<br />
It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br />
<br />
Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br />
<br />
Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) <br />
<br />
Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br />
<br />
From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203) According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br />
<br />
Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br />
<br />
The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) <br />
<br />
When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br />
<br />
When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br />
<br />
However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br />
<br />
In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br />
<br />
In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br />
<br />
===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br />
Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br />
<br />
Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br />
<br />
However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br />
<br />
The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br />
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br />
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br />
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br />
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆. <br />
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br />
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.<br />
<br />
== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representative of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida put forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devoted himself to teaching, and put forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points, and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br />
<br />
===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br />
===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
====1.1 Eugene Nida====<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.1 The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br />
At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.2 The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br />
======1.1.2.1Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br />
Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics to carry out translation activities when there are translation problems. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communication of thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br />
<br />
======1.1.2.2 Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br />
According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message (Tan Zaixi 1984,10)”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text.<br />
Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br />
<br />
=====1.1.3 The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br />
At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br />
<br />
====1.2 Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br />
<br />
The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br />
<br />
===2. Similarities and Differences===<br />
====2.1 The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.1.1 Translatability=====<br />
Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br />
In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br />
Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br />
Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
<br />
What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br />
Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward "correlative translation" on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "relevance translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br />
=====2.2.1 Different Definition of Translation=====<br />
Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Different Nature of Translation=====<br />
The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Different Theories=====<br />
The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.4 Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br />
Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.5 Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br />
When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.6 Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br />
Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===3. My Views on Their Theories===<br />
Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " "Play the game" means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br />
<br />
Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to "extract the essence" and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1984 *Tam Jae-hee. [Nida on Translation] [M]. Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company] 1984<br />
*廖七一.当代西方翻译理论探索 [M].译林出版社，2000 *Liao Qiyi. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] [M]. [Translating Forest Press], 2000<br />
*刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社， 2009.9 *Liu Junping. [Translation and translation] [M]. Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] 2009.9<br />
*方梦之. 中国译学大辞典[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2011 *Fang Mengzhi. [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] [M]. Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press], 2011<br />
*林敏煜.浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [J].文教资料 2008：61-62 *Lin Min-yu. [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] [J]. [Journal of Translation and Education] 2008: 61-62<br />
*崔建周，卢静.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [J]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 2006，19(3) ：106-108 *Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] [J]. [Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 2006, 19(3):106-108 <br />
*徐向晖.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨 [J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报 2010，9(1) ：88-89 *Xu Xianghui. [A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] [J]. [Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 2010, 9(1): 88-89<br />
*杨山青，饶家林. 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用 [J]. 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报 2010（1）：41-42 *Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin. [The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] [J]. [Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 2010(1):41-42 <br />
*胡爱萍. 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究 [J].铜陵学院学报 2014：81 *Hu Aiping. [A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] [J]. [Journal of Tongling College] 2014: 81<br />
*王小丹. 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[J].陕西师范大学学报2009：131-131 *Wang Xiaodan. [Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] [J]. [Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 2009, 131-132<br />
*纽马克. 翻译问题探讨[M]. 上海外语教育出版社，2001 *Newmark. [Exploring Translation Issues] [M]. [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press], 2001<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. From One Language to Another [M]. Thomas Nelson Incorporated,1986<br />
*Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964<br />
*Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969<br />
*Peter·Newmark. About Translation [M]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd,1991 <br />
*Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation [M]. London: Prentice Hall International (UK), 1988<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==<br />
<br />
<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
western translation theories,<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论划分之研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
西方翻译理论<br />
<br />
===Ⅰ.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br />
<br />
===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====<br />
<br />
The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====<br />
<br />
Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====<br />
<br />
St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====<br />
<br />
St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====<br />
<br />
Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dante=====<br />
<br />
Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====<br />
<br />
Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====<br />
<br />
Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====<br />
<br />
John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====<br />
<br />
In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====<br />
<br />
Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br />
<br />
=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing, 1989a: 3). He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells, 1988:24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined. In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work. His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br />
<br />
=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====<br />
<br />
Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells, 1988: 27-28). However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.<br />
<br />
====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====<br />
<br />
Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field. There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion: 1) Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions. 2) The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. 3) Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. 4) All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them.5) The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 John Catford=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====<br />
<br />
=====2.5.5 Lawrence Venuti=====<br />
<br />
===Ⅲ.Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
--<br />
--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br />
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece. From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br />
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools. <br />
<br />
Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br />
<br />
[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br />
<br />
In summary, Nida's broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. What's more, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.<br />
<br />
===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br />
<br />
====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br />
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br />
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br />
In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br />
<br />
As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br />
<br />
====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br />
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br />
<br />
In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.<br />
<br />
====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br />
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br />
<br />
In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br />
<br />
All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br />
<br />
===4. Significance===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br />
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
=====4.2 Influences in China=====<br />
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. <br />
<br />
As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories on the contary have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]<br />
<br />
In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Limitations====<br />
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
As for Catford, As soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China. Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.<br />
<br />
Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.<br />
<br />
Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.<br />
<br />
Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.<br />
<br />
Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.<br />
<br />
Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.<br />
<br />
Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶Xu Mengdie ==<br />
<center>徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student no.202020080657 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br />
This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br />
本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
1. Research Background<br />
<br />
With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). He distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br />
The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br />
<br />
2. Research Method<br />
<br />
Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound,etc.<br />
<br />
Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br />
<br />
===II.Literature Review===<br />
Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br />
<br />
[[File:A.png]]<br />
<br />
Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br />
<br />
[[File:8.png]]<br />
<br />
Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br />
<br />
As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br />
<br />
Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are "Chinese new poetry", "poem translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br />
<br />
====III.Discussion====<br />
Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences. <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc. (蒋洪新，2001). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br />
<br />
In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br />
<br />
====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br />
<br />
太阳辛苦了一天，<br />
赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br />
喜得满面通红，<br />
一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br />
<br />
This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br />
<br />
''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （《冬夜》评论）<br />
<br />
"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br />
<br />
“落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold." <br />
<br />
This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br />
<br />
Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br />
<br />
====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Wen Yiduo, 1926). In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br />
<br />
Sea Fever<br />
by： John Masefield<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br />
<br />
And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br />
<br />
And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br />
<br />
Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br />
<br />
And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br />
<br />
I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br />
<br />
To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br />
<br />
And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br />
<br />
And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br />
<br />
我要回海上去<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br />
<br />
我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br />
<br />
还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br />
<br />
海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br />
<br />
是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br />
<br />
我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br />
<br />
再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br />
<br />
我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br />
<br />
走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br />
<br />
我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br />
<br />
临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。<br />
<br />
John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br />
<br />
To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". "To steer" this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation.<br />
Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (诗歌节奏的研究). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br />
<br />
Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br />
<br />
Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br />
<br />
====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br />
<br />
Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br />
<br />
In a Station of the Metro<br />
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br />
Petals on a wet, black bough.<br />
<br />
This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br />
Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br />
<br />
Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". So he appealed to "beauty of architecture" and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br />
<br />
Thursday<br />
——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br />
<br />
And if I loved you Wednesday, <br />
<br />
Well, what is that to you?<br />
<br />
I do not love you Thursday— <br />
<br />
So much is true. <br />
<br />
And why you come complaining <br />
<br />
Is more than I can see.<br />
<br />
I loved you Wednesday,<br />
<br />
—yes—but what Is that to me?<br />
<br />
礼拜四<br />
<br />
即使我礼拜三爱你，<br />
<br />
你管它做什么？<br />
<br />
礼拜四我并不爱你，<br />
<br />
却一点也不错。<br />
<br />
我真不懂，你何为还<br />
<br />
找着我来纠缠。<br />
<br />
礼拜三我爱你—对—<br />
<br />
可是那与我又何干？<br />
<br />
This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" into the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠". Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br />
In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br />
<br />
====4.Conclusion====<br />
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br />
Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br />
<br />
===V.Reference===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br />
<br />
Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br />
<br />
Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br />
<br />
Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br />
<br />
Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br />
<br />
Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br />
<br />
Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br />
<br />
Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br />
<br />
Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br />
<br />
Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br />
<br />
Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br />
<br />
Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS:===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence;Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br />
<br />
This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br />
<br />
Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br />
<br />
Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br />
<br />
In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br />
<br />
Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br />
<br />
Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br />
<br />
If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br />
<br />
If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br />
<br />
The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br />
<br />
On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br />
<br />
Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br />
<br />
In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br />
<br />
In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.<br />
<br />
<br />
''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".<br />
<br />
<br />
In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br />
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br />
<br />
<br />
⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br />
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br />
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br />
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br />
<br />
<br />
As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br />
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br />
<br />
Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br />
<br />
The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.<br />
<br />
The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br />
<br />
The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br />
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br />
<br />
The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br />
<br />
In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br />
<br />
First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br />
<br />
1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”<br />
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”<br />
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”<br />
<br />
⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)<br />
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br />
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)<br />
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br />
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br />
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br />
<br />
⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br />
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br />
<br />
⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br />
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br />
<br />
⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br />
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br />
<br />
⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br />
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''7. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography:'''<br />
<br />
[1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br />
<br />
[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br />
<br />
[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br />
<br />
[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br />
<br />
[5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br />
<br />
[6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br />
<br />
[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br />
<br />
[8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br />
<br />
[9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br />
<br />
[10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br />
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
<br />
'''1 Introduction'''<br />
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br />
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br />
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br />
<br />
'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br />
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br />
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br />
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br />
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br />
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br />
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br />
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br />
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br />
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br />
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br />
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br />
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br />
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br />
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br />
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br />
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br />
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br />
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br />
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br />
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br />
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br />
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br />
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br />
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br />
'''5.2 Block Model'''<br />
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br />
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br />
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br />
'''5.4 Integration Model'''<br />
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br />
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br />
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br />
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br />
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br />
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br />
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br />
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br />
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br />
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br />
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br />
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br />
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br />
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br />
'''7 Conclusion'''<br />
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br />
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br />
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br />
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br />
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br />
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br />
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br />
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br />
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br />
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br />
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br />
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br />
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br />
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br />
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br />
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br />
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=11215220201214 trans2020-12-14T07:49:12Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Juan 彭娟 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安出现的社会主义教育体系中，报道文学的研究与创作和组织并参演剧团演出一起，成为青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安时，研究撰写报道文学和组织参演剧团演出，成为当时社会主义教育体系中青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 06:12, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，所以他们在四十年代前的文学经验有限。对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光帮助他们定义了文学是如何由形成到产出的。秦牧却没有去过延安，他的整个战争时期都是在广东，广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧仍然是没有被这种文化环境所浸染的。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，在十九世纪四十年代前，他们还没有太多文学创作经验。因此对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光让他们明白文学从形成到完成是一个什么样的过程。然而，秦牧从没有去过延安，整个战争时期他都是在广东、广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧没有受到这种文化环境的熏陶。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 06:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br />
<br />
社会主义或者说共产主义曾经处于主导地位（如抗日时期的延安，然后贯穿1949中国成立以来整个时期）批判散文写作（无论是小品文还是报告文学）可以说，它已经在战时经过多次实践，从文化官员的角度来说，它变得更加不可信。纪实文学需要成为公众庆祝和历史成就的文学工具【如：杨朔《钢铁的大军》（前进，钢铁的大军，1949），中华散文珍藏本，杨朔卷（北京：人民文学出版社，1998）25-33；《平常的人》（平常的人，1951）25-33；杨朔卷13-17，《戈壁滩上的春天》（戈壁滩上的春天，1953），阳朔卷29-33】。这恰好是丁玲的困境，参加延安协会，作为同一批人中受到良好训练的敏锐批评家。除了那些参加社会主义教育文化系统但是相对年轻的人，这是一次尴尬的转变。对他们来说，文学事业正在建造一个前所未有的新视野。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:37, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
'''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br />
<br />
Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br />
<br />
'''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''作家角色的变化改变了散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年之间，是清王朝覆灭和中华民国建立后的短短几年。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十出头。他们年龄相仿，处于相同的历史和文化氛围下，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的方式参与战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School.<br />
刘柏宇[1916-?, 源自. 刘玉赞，北京. 参见牛云清, 刘柏宇 平专（重庆：重庆出版社，1995).]抵达延安也很早，并很快就投入到了当地的文学活动中去。在他抵达数周后，尽管刘当时才22岁，毛泽东亲自派他带领一个五人护卫队，并陪同美国海军观察员埃文斯·卡森参观中国北部的游击地区（一个派遣各种类型“文化工作者”的共产党基地）。尽管开了一个充满前景的好头以及偶尔会与毛主席接触，刘出版的作品还是引起了某些批评家和政府工作人员的不满，因此，他在毛泽东讲话后成了延安正风运动的目标，并在中央党校进行了互相批评以及自我批评的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br />
<br />
Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br />
<br />
因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br />
<br />
因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br />
<br />
Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda.<br />
<br />
因此，他有一种特别独立的特质，这一特质使得他在1949年后与作家协会的关系有些紧张。他在1957年的正风运动中遭到攻击，且直到1962年才加入共产党。<br />
<br />
因此，1949年后，尤其是百花运动期间和百花运动之后，每一位作家在接触到写作时都会表现出不同程度的紧张。然而,他们都以散文为载体来表达自己,尽管有时这些文章似乎表面上是适度的或过度的宣传。<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br />
<br />
The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br />
<br />
社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br />
<br />
由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
社会散文的发展和关注点<br />
<br />
由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br />
<br />
In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism.<br />
<br />
与左派美学的摩擦<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代末和60年代初，“散文”一词更多地与“抒情性”(抒情)联系在一起，而非“说理性”(说理)。在实践中，这表现在冗长的描述性段落，经常使用第二人称直接称呼读者，以及修辞性的疑问句、祈使句和表达性助词。在狂热表达的时候，社会主义性散文呈现出一种赋式的修辞、句法上的排比，具象堆砌以及华丽的词藻。有人试着将这种语言丰富的尝试与朱自清和俞平伯等某些民国时期风格明显的散文家联系起来，但社会主义性散文在语言和情感显露方面更加丰富。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:31, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape.<br />
<br />
从意象层面来看，人们对战争时期遗留下来的光，火及火把等意象十分着迷的现象仍然存在（在刘白羽1940年代后期的报道文学作品中尤为显著），不过到1950年代后兴趣点开始转向于花卉意象。（秦牧的散文作品以及杨朔的部分作品中充满花卉植物等意象，这些意象自成一体，同时具有象征之意）。最后，三位作家的共同策略是将远景或某种经验想象成为一副写生风景画，强调视觉的重要性及随之而来的欣喜和振奋之情。在某些情况下，这些充满视觉冲击的文章配有插图，而插图与充满视觉化风景的文章之间出奇地吻合。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 06:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
'''Yang Shuo'''<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br />
<br />
'''杨朔'''<br />
<br />
杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是大谈山水画的典范。 虽然文章只是讲述了作者登顶著名的泰山的过程，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的比喻结构交相辉映。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种富有形象和描述性语言的巧妙构思。第二个要素：杨写道“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:02, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br />
<br />
The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br />
<br />
这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br />
<br />
文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br />
<br />
文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br />
<br />
In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad.<br />
<br />
为了（第二天）能按时起来看日出，游客们很早就上床睡觉了，夜晚在靠近顶峰的地方，天气很是晴朗，但是在黎明时分，一夜之间水雾缭绕，天空乌云密布 。但作者前一天晚上对的社会主义/共产主义景观的顿悟，使平庸的游客对期望看到美丽日出的愿望黯然失色--他看到了地平线上的中国人/民族的“另一种”（形而上的）日出。<br />
<br />
在他关于昆明的山茶花的文章中，[《茶花赋》写于1961年，摘自《东风第一枝》. 杨134-37] 杨朔开篇就写道与一位画家朋友讨论什么样的画能展示 "祖国"的面貌。 接着，他转而谈到从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
顶峰附近晚上的天气已经晴朗，为了第二天能够早起赶上日出，这时聚会早早就结束了。雨雾逗留一整夜，黎明时变得灰蒙蒙的。但是作者前一天傍晚的社会主义/共产主义景观顿悟掩盖了普通游客对美丽日出的渴望，他看到了“另一种”（抽象的）日出，即地平线上的中国人/民族的日出。<br />
<br />
杨朔写关于昆明插茶花的散文时 [《茶花赋》出自《东风第一枝》杨朔134-37]，他先与一位艺术家朋友讨论哪种描绘可以展现“祖国”的面貌。之后，他谈论了从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:36, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br />
<br />
特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被遍布在这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内的美丽山茶花迷住了，这一路有该市景观设计师金志文陪同着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。园丁本人的详尽描述也是作者了解所指之物的关键。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:58, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br />
<br />
我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br />
<br />
What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br />
<br />
当作者观察到一群来观赏山茶花的小学生时，山茶花和孩童们之间的联系就建立了，“怎样画出祖国的面貌特色”这个谜题也就解开了——画童子面茶花。<br />
<br />
在杨朔的抒情诗中，除了这些例子外，还有许多不协调之处，就是无论他的文章的象征意义多么明显，感情多么热烈，几乎总是在负面因素的带动下产生矛盾：为什么在“泰山最高峰”上颂扬社会主义进步，却要以壮观的日出为代价？普之仁“经历”了什么，使他的皱纹加深了？为什么这种痛苦与创造美感有关？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
'''Liu Baiyu'''<br />
<br />
Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s.<br />
<br />
刘白羽在国内向三文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''刘白羽'''<br />
<br />
刘白羽在国内向散文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 04:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br />
<br />
20世纪50年代末的中国岁月静好，现世安稳；而彼时《灯火》的诞生则带我们重回马革裹尸的战场。《灯火》，以抗战时期到社会主义经济建设时期的不同发展阶段为背景，通过强有力的、入木三分的修辞手段，刻画了灯火的形象，将刘白羽最初想要透过灯火告诉我们的激进斗争意识很好地嵌入其中。[《灯火》（Lamplight),刘白羽，《红玛瑙集》（Red agate)(北京：文化艺术出版社，1983）5-11.]显而易见，刘白羽虽然在当时的文学界影响力颇大，但他仍与文学界的某些观点格格不入，特别是在对战场的污名化方面：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪50年代末的中国岁月静好，现世安稳；而彼时《灯火》的诞生则带我们重回战场。《灯火》以抗战时期到社会主义经济建设时期的不同阶段为背景，通过有力的、入木三分的修辞手段，刻画了灯火的形象，将刘白羽最初想要透过灯火告诉我们的激进斗争意识很好地嵌入其中。[《灯火》（Lamplight),刘白羽，《红玛瑙集》（Red agate)(北京：文化艺术出版社，1983）5-11.] 显而易见，刘白羽虽然在当时的文学界影响颇大，但仍与文学界的某些观点格格不入，特别是在战场的污名化方面：--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 05:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
. . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br />
<br />
...现如今，有些人对待战争话题上，无论对错，不分黑白，总把它们弄得血腥，黑暗又恐怖！他们称之为“通过士兵的眼睛”，“现实主义散兵坑”！这让我们那些腿上绑着绑腿，肩上扛着火药捧腹大笑。你可以做些什么？有勇敢的士兵为正义而战；有反革命的凶手；并且有懦弱的叛国贼。有不同种类的战士就应该有不同种的观点，还得要有不同种类的“现实主义散兵坑”。也许有些人会批评我：我怎么能从那些明亮的地方得出这些关于战争的言论，那我不是跑题了吗？其实上并没有。我在说的点也许是个小问题，但这确实映射出的是战争中实际生活。回到主题，在松花江寒冷的荒野上，穿越冬日的雪地，穿越夏日的急流，从光照下，我能够体会到某种温暖。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:30, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
"The Brilliance of Spring,"[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br />
<br />
"春光灿烂"（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 "百花齐放"）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"春天的辉煌"，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 "百花"）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br />
<br />
这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这篇文章以视觉化形式呈现，黎明时分，天安门广场的建筑工地上有长相帅气但是衣服褴褛的工人，作者还想起其他场景，当他就在“那里，那个位置！” 其中就一个很重要的一段记忆就是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有人民解放军回北京和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式的记忆。但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 01:51, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br />
<br />
刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br />
<br />
尽管渴望通过真实的体验来密切联系群众，但作家更多的是通过共产党的组织活动和联系来接触工农兵。 读刘白羽在上个世纪五六十年代创作的文章中，你可以感觉到他为了使自身的经历（努力使其真实感最大化）和他所描述的人物发挥最大作用所做的努力是不太协调的。(《写在太阳初升的时候》，Hong manao ji 34-52 [写于1959年？]) 在主体层面上，由于他所写的（模范）工人等都是模范和领袖，已经是（体现）地方共产党行政机关的一部分，他们也在努力给人以正确的印象，把自己的经验和思想正确地表达出来，按照人们所期望的方式去做。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
'''Qin Mu'''<br />
<br />
Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br />
<br />
<br />
秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br />
<br />
秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br />
<br />
一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有一次，我透过飞机窗凝视珠江三角洲：天空万里无云、湛蓝如许。低头一看，我不禁欢呼起来！珠江三角洲实在太壮观了，简直妙不可言！河流和湖泊星罗棋布，在阳光下熠熠生辉；而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀刻画出来一般；田野块块分明，与棋盘别无二致。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神明和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹正发生在这片土地上。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:03, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br />
<br />
在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br />
<br />
Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br />
<br />
这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。("一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后"。30)<br />
<br />
秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 "写什么？"这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br />
<br />
秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br />
<br />
But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br />
<br />
通过阅读这篇文章，我们不难发现秦牧的大受欢迎不是因为他显而易见的马克思列宁主义，而是其影响广泛的、永不过时的、普遍适用的以及几乎包罗万象的视野和深思。秦牧的许多或大部分文章都有种令人兴奋的广博感。<br />
政治语境下，这篇文章如杨朔的《山水沉思录》一样，在重构的情况下才于苏联太空探索的早年间写就。在秦牧看来，这一领域中苏联的成功与美国的失败是历史的清晰指示。他以几乎过火的言辞声明，资本主义在太空探索以及一般科学的失败意味着资本主义世界观无法摆脱过时的信念，而社会主义则是容易且自然地与科学成果和进步结合在一起的。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:51, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br />
<br />
秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br />
<br />
'''结论'''<br />
<br />
"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br />
<br />
"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是没有意义的；通过向他们一样去观察或者想象这个世界，他们就帮助创造了社会主义世界，这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的模板进行写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界，他们帮助把社会主义世界写成了现实。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br />
<br />
斯拉沃伊·齐泽克对帕斯卡的解释是，信仰实际上可以从刻意通过仪式和对信徒的模仿中产生，齐泽克进一步指出，任何社会中的“现实”都是由它特有的意识形态幻想产生的，这暗示了对社会主义散文的类似解释。[斯拉瓦伊·齐泽克，《崇高的意识形态》(伦敦:Verso, 1989) 38-43]他认为，通过信仰的仪式活动，个体已经在没有意识到的情况下相信了它，而这种信仰对于意识的控制只是时间问题。但是在意识形态的幻想中，社会现实代表在边缘和阴影中暗示着这种幻想的不可能性。我所说的杨烁、刘白羽和秦木作品中的“不协调”，是指那些几乎无意识的玷污了原始视觉的暗示。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是就像至于一个真空环境之下一样，中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个自我封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br />
<br />
''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br />
<br />
““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br />
<br />
'''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br />
<br />
Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br />
<br />
这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br />
<br />
审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 "传统姿态"，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br />
<br />
对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br />
<br />
作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 "作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为"。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br />
采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 "互动"。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br />
<br />
In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br />
<br />
此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br />
总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br />
<br />
总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br />
<br />
In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br />
<br />
在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br />
<br />
在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br />
<br />
In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br />
<br />
Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br />
<br />
传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br />
<br />
Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br />
<br />
“Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br />
现代文本从对已确立的意义和价值的质疑和重新评估演变而来，而不仅仅是对被认为是传统观念、习俗和理想的排斥。一旦剥夺了传统的绝对权利，接受了解释和重建，现代性就会出现。<br />
<br />
一般来说，“手势”指的是“为了传达某人的意图或态度的行动。旅行者的活动不仅仅是有明显目的的行动，比如到达某个地点或参观某个地点。罗兰·巴特关于书写中的手势和作为手势的书写的概念暗示了地点散文中意义的多样性，并最终证明了地点散文作为写作文本的观点。在《形式的责任》一书中，罗兰·巴特将艺术中的“姿态”描述为一种行为的多余。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
[s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br />
<br />
Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br />
<br />
Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
[t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br />
类似于一种行为的盈余。动作是及物性的，它只寻求刺激一个对象，一个结果;手势是一种不确定的、无穷无尽的原因、脉动、懒惰的总和，它以一种气氛围绕着动作[…]。因此，让我们把寻求产生信息的信息和寻求产生智力的符号，与无需寻求产生任何东西而产生其余一切(“剩余”)的手势区分开来。<br />
穿越山脉和湖泊是有具体目标的活动。这些作为“姿态”或“剩余行动”的活动，在朱、于、方的文章中，最终是一种态度的标志，通过提供可能性而不是界定意义和意义，来不断地质疑和改变意义。<br />
<br />
根据Roland Barthes的说法，每一篇文章最终都是手势的产物，讨论了美国画家Cy Twombly (b. 1928)的作品，Roland Barthes进一步谈到了手势的作用:<br />
<br />
艺术家[…]就身份而言，他是一个手势的“操作者”:他试图产生一种效果，但同时又不寻求这种效果;他所产生的效果他并没有义务去寻求;它们是颠倒的，无意的影响，反过来影响到他，并因此引起某些修改，偏差，线条和笔划的缓和。因此，手势废除了因果、动机和目标、表情和说服之间的区别(Barthes 160)。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br />
<br />
郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br />
<br />
在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br />
这三篇文章都试图在穿越不同的风景时采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和后果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素中的一个。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这三篇文章在穿越不同情景时，都试图采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和结果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的描述的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
'''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br />
<br />
Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br />
<br />
It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
'''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br />
<br />
与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br />
<br />
需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br />
<br />
遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br />
<br />
重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br />
Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals.<br />
<br />
朱自清与歌星女孩的相遇是在其他路人的围观下，这使得气氛紧张起来，他的行为也变得不安。 通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背了他的意愿的。<br />
然而，具有讽刺意味的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙加强了距离感，误解和疏离感，这些都根植于现代知识分子所遇到的困境中。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在其他路人的围观下朱自清与歌星女孩相遇了，这使得气氛紧张，他也变得不安。通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背他的意愿的。<br />
然而，讽刺的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙强化了源自现代知识分子困境的距离感，误解和疏离感。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br />
<br />
The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br />
<br />
朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br />
<br />
文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br />
<br />
文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，也十分地尴尬。<br />
<br />
文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。朱自清的先进思想抑制了他的欲望，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br />
<br />
Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br />
<br />
这一遭遇使朱自清很快打消了采用传统姿态的想法，在秦淮河上他的内心并没有得到安宁，而是充满困惑和冲突。朱自清在此地体验到的紧张感，来自他试图在周围的环境中坚持自己的身份，但这种尝试是徒劳的，于是他也不可能融入秦淮河的夜景中。<br />
<br />
只有当朱自清的内心冲突有所缓和时，他和俞平伯才怡然自若。在回去的路上，他们经过一只载妓的板船，妓女在船上唱着清歌。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一遭遇使朱自清很快打消了采用传统姿态的想法，在秦淮河上他的内心并没有得到安宁，而是充满困惑和冲突。朱自清在此地感受到的紧张，来自他试图在周围的环境中坚持自己的身份，但这种尝试是徒劳的，因此他也不可能融入秦淮河的夜景中。<br />
<br />
只有当朱自清的内心冲突有所缓和时，他和俞平伯才怡然自若。在回去的路上，他们经过一只载妓的板船，妓女在船上唱着清歌。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:54, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br />
<br />
歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
歌妓坐在没有灯光的船头，独自唱着歌。对朱自清来说，这个意外的插曲暂时弥补了之前的遗憾，然而，这种满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和俞平伯回到了繁华的闹市。其实二人并没有真的遇到那个孤独的歌妓，也有可能歌妓根本没有注意到他们，但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的语言姿势。只要他们保持一定的距离，这个姿态的意义似乎就有可能被传达出来，然而最终由于朱自清没有维持这一姿态，所以没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br />
<br />
Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br />
<br />
他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，"仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
<br />
'''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br />
<br />
不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，"如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
<br />
'''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br />
<br />
不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br />
<br />
郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
路上的崎岖加上内心的不安，使得郁达夫上山的一路都走得不平稳。他此行的意义也模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫启程桐君山参观一座道观。一下渡船，山路崎岖漆黑，他被一块乱石绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候选择去爬山似乎不可理喻，而正常的行走也几乎不可能了。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br />
<br />
渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
船夫递给他一盒火柴帮助他找到路。起初，于是“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。广阔的天空和广阔的视野延伸到远处的城镇，似乎增加了俞正声采用传统的姿态，思考地点和过去的机会。然而，当他接近寺庙时，围绕寺庙的矮墙中一个明显被锁住的门阻碍了他的前进。他踱来踱去，不知如何是好，最后他试了试大门，结果门开了。具有讽刺意味的是，于的行程被推迟，甚至几乎被缩短，不是因为一扇锁着的门，而是因为他的优柔寡断和犹豫。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br />
<br />
虽然他发现寺庙的门夜晚确实是紧紧关着的，但此时他还是很满足于坐在与门相邻的城墙上，从那里他可以俯瞰河流，欣赏风景。他凝视着天上的星星、云朵和月亮，以及下面在风中轻轻摇曳的船只的灯光。最后，郁达夫的位置让他能够从一个更高的、独立的有利位置思考过去。同郡山无与伦比的风景激发了郁达夫对东汉(公元25-220年)隐士严子陵和东晋(317-420年)戴波和戴勇的生活的思考，他们把这里作为自己的家。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br />
<br />
郁达夫完全理解并尊重他们隐居的决定，并预示着自己的隐居生活即将开始。镇上守夜的钟声把将他唤醒。他吓了一跳，背对着船跑去。他的遐想戛然而止，突然急着要回到船上，与这段文字中反映出来的气氛和情感形成了鲜明的对比。传统的手势突然终止了。就像钟声将他惊动一般，这个突然结束的夜景让读者大吃一惊。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br />
<br />
In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br />
<br />
在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--<br />
<br />
在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在去钓台的船上，郁达夫赏景后觉得疲倦，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦中出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br />
<br />
在这首诗中，一个突出的传统形象是这个忠诚的官员，他假装疯狂（佯狂）地说出了未被注意的真理。这里，一个众所众知的传统手势被嵌入到文本中的文本中。然而，在做这个手势之前，他这一次再次被叫醒于的船夫终止了。<br />
<br />
Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
很明显，于对他周围的看法改变了。在入睡之前，他看见连绵的青山环绕清澈的河流，沙洲上百花盛开，总之就是一幅祥和的如画风景。然而，当船接近钓台时，周围的山水画已经不知不觉间改变了。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br />
<br />
The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br />
<br />
河流越来越窄，山也越来越近，“好像没有前进的路了。” 高耸的山脉营造出一种压抑的孤独气氛，甚至船桨的声音都令人沮丧：回声过了很久才能听到，更加渲染了“古老的寂静”，将“灭绝的寂静”笼罩在船上。 太阳落山了，只有风阵阵吹过。<br />
周围环境变得阴郁，于的期待变成了恐惧。 相比于他在铜军山上的遐想，于现在认为钓鱼台是荒凉而阴沉的，怪异地回响着他诗歌中的混乱无序、动荡不安。 他描述了杂草上乱乱的石头。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:43, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br />
<br />
On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility.<br />
然而，他身临钓台，亲看其景，却感叹与明信片上所见差别极大，周围更加荒芜杂乱，仅此而已。但此情此景实际上更说明了东方民族堕落的冷落之美。讽刺地是，余秋雨对明信片和实景的对比只是更加强调了景色色彩的相似性而已。他观的这个地方，本身就自带现今危难的印记。把他对景色的描述和代表国家稳定秩序的瑞士联系在一起只是徒增国家衰弱混乱的印象罢了。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
然而，他身临钓台，亲看其景，却感叹与明信片上所见差别极大，周围更加荒芜杂乱，仅此而已。但此情此景实际上更说明了东方民族没落的荒凉之美。讽刺地是，余秋雨对明信片和实景的对比只是更加强调了景色色彩的相似性而已。他观的这个地方，本身就自带现今危难的印记。把他对景色的描述和代表国家稳定秩序的瑞士联系在一起只是徒增国家衰弱混乱的印象罢了。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br />
<br />
After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br />
<br />
这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
'''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br />
<br />
By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br />
<br />
Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br />
<br />
方令孺《琅琊山游记》中的自我指称策略<br />
自我指称策略通过凸显文本的建构性对文本明确、权威的意义提出了质疑。该策略指出，文本意义的多元性进一步证实了它们在谈判视角、立场和身份上的重要性。方令孺在对其两天旅行的叙述结尾处写道：“琅琊山上仍有许多名胜古迹；如果命中注定，我还会再来一次。我没有什么可以补充的了(我的重点)。”<br />
方令孺,《琅琊山游记》, 编著，马忠林，杨国璋, 王钟华, 北京:中国旅游出版社, 1982:148.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br />
<br />
When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br />
<br />
当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的特别菜肴和美酒。她的叙述非常乏味且跟着一个虎头蛇尾的附录。之后，这段叙述之后又加了两端来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:06, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的一种特别的菜肴和葡萄酒。对她的叙述进行这种乏味且虎头蛇尾的补充之后，她又加了两段来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”----[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br />
<br />
It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time.<br />
方令孺的文章的最后两段完成了个人反思的框架，其中包含了她对旅行的冷静叙述。个人记忆是有意义体验的最终轨迹，也是文章背后的创作力量。尽管断言与此相反，在表述一种经历时，穷尽的事实和细节并不会使文本结束。她的最后一句话表明，与人类相遇密切相关的旅行记忆是她满足的来源，而不是模仿传统手势，似乎承诺了一个权威的地点和时间的再现。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 07:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
她的记忆和文字就像植物一样，生生不息，不断变化。宣告她的文本结束的手势被同样的文本的继续削弱了。方文章中的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜在性，而不是完整性和终结性。<br />
在朱、于和方的文章中尝试采用既定的诗性姿态，并没有消除作者在一个不断变化的环境中导航、重新定义和断言自己角色时的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每一篇文章中，各种因素都质疑这些手势的可靠性和重要性，突出了作者在他所访问的地方的经历和位置的模糊性。她的记忆和文字就像植物一样，生生不息，不断变化。宣告她的文本结束的手势被同样的文本的继续削弱了。方文章中的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜在性，而不是完整性和终结性。<br />
结论<br />
在朱、于和方的文章中采用既定的诗性姿态的尝试，并没有消除作者在一个不断变化的环境中航行、重新定义和断言自己(或她)角色时的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每一篇文章中，各种因素都质疑这些手势的可靠性和重要性，突出了作者在他所访问的地方的经历和位置的模糊性。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 07:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br />
<br />
Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br />
<br />
与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br />
<br />
By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br />
<br />
朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br />
<br />
通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br />
<br />
五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
'''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br />
<br />
''Wang Ban''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction.<br />
<br />
这篇文章摆脱了历史意识，对消费文化的到来做出了热情而轻松的回应。 它旨在满足城市消费者的适度需求，因为他们的敏感性正变得“散文化”，平淡无奇，历史悠久，每天都在忙于处理最私密和琐碎的事情。 本文回顾了张爱玲的论文思想，并试图追溯现代论文与城市消费文化兴起之间的联系。 然后，通过分析王安忆的中篇小说《叔叔的故事》，我展示了王的摸索，探索性论文/小说如何戏剧性地从历史意识退缩到我所说的感觉的文章结构。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 07:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br />
<br />
'''The Essay and the Novel'''<br />
<br />
The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br />
<br />
主人公叔叔的事业说明了历史意识的减弱。 本文力求指出，散文的矛盾之处在于其摆脱了宏大叙事的束缚，并且对中国崛起的消费文化中历史意识的衰落做出了贡献。<br />
<br />
'''散文与小说'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文化形式，可以与小说联系起来。 在20世纪的中国，可能直到1980年代中期为止，史诗般的现实主义小说一直是文学的主要形式和重要的意识形态工具。中国现实主义小说可以用乔治·卢卡奇（GeorgLukács）的方式解释为史诗。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br />
<br />
Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br />
批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56).<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听起来不合时宜，我们可以通过引用革命理想和社会现实、理论和实践的统一来证明其合理性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中的一个突出宗旨。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种神话和史诗结构，在这种结构中，梦想和历史、个人和集体成为一体。 在卢卡斯看来，史诗是缩略的小说，因为后者是一种脱胎于前者的直接的、没有问题的理想与现实的统一的形式(56)。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:41, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一来证明其正确性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦想与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡斯看来，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者是一种剥离了前者直接的、毫无问题的理想与现实统一的形式（56）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条，即争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦幻与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡奇，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者脱离了前者直接而毫无疑问的理想与现实的统一（56）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br />
<br />
The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br />
<br />
换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br />
<br />
在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br />
<br />
和革命现实主义和乌托邦主义一样，慷慨激昂的抒情小说中一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期苦难和贫穷之间的差距，另一方面，实现共产主义最终理想，实现理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式的小说应该远不止我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚舒舒服服地蜷缩在沙发上阅读的文本。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启迪式的宏大叙事题材实践。这种小说旨在促使你上街或到贫穷的村庄，和其他人们组织起来创造历史。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
小说中的抒情繁荣被等同于革命唯心主义和乌托邦主义时，似乎就显得格格不入，其一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期导致的苦难和贫穷；另一方面，实现了共产主义最终理想，实现了理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式下的小说不是我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚，舒服蜷缩在沙发上看的那类小说。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启发性的，其宏大的叙事投射了物质实践。 它的目的是鼓励您走上街头或走进贫困的村庄，并与其他同伴一起创造历史。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br />
<br />
散文在当代中国的兴起，标志着史诗模式下的小说已经面临濒危。这不仅仅是体裁的问题，我也不是在建议读者们蜂拥去写散文而放弃小说。我的观点是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，或者更普遍地，让位于感性的散文结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 17:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
散文在当代中国的兴起，意味着史诗类型小说的下坡。这不仅是题材问题，我也不是说建议读者们一股脑地去阅读散文作品而将小说抛诸脑后。我的意思是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，更笼统地说就是在让位于感性的散文式结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br />
<br />
关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，"在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失"（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得有疑问和过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。 在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得困难重重且过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:57, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br />
<br />
Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br />
<br />
普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br />
<br />
它的现代讽刺性就在于此，在梦想完美世界的同时，又深知完美的不可能。有趣的是，卢卡奇对小说的反讽性、自省性的洞察，让我们得以一窥这篇文章的状况。在中国现实主义小说中，可以肯定的是，从世俗现实中涌现出来的共产主义乌托邦的历史总体性是灵感的光辉象征，表面上与黑格尔的精神在国家中的实现有着的相似之处。但对共产主义乌托邦的最终胜利和全面解放社会的实现的信念，却被小说话语假定为规律性的、预设性的，因而具有现实性和必然性。因此，小说、史诗模式的小说的衰落，可以理解为宏大的马克思主义的历史叙事的衰落。相比之下，散文的兴起则预示着一种更为支离破碎、彼此分离和私人化的表意实践形式，这种形式正在一个堕落的现实世界的裂缝和缝隙中涌现。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br />
<br />
脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 "失控 "一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br />
<br />
For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br />
<br />
像许多其他文化领域一样，它已经商品化并进入市场，在大众传媒和娱乐业被包装成一个又一个项目。这种变化的社会语境对于理解散文作为当代中国的一种文学形式和文化表达媒介至关重要。但是，商品文化与散文，或者说散文写作和感受的方式之间的这种联系，并不是最近十年出现的一种全新现象。<br />
<br />
为了追溯这一历史联系，我们可以追溯到现代文学史的早期。张爱玲的散文及其对散文形式的反思，是散文与大众文化联姻的成功范例。黄妮可在这本书中的论文着眼于这段婚姻的某些方面，这在张爱玲的文章中有所体现。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 06:24, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br />
<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br />
<br />
The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br />
这种结合在当代作家王安忆的作品中有了新的表现，王安忆在一个更新的城市语境中写作，在很多方面与蒋介石相似。分析张爱玲对这篇文章的思考，有助于我们理解王的作品。张爱玲的观点使这篇文章在城市和消费文化中形成了清晰的轮廓。王安忆的散文，尤其是小说中的散文时刻，标志着这一以消费为导向的文体在新的历史条件下的回归。<br />
《张爱玲与都市背景下的散文》<br />
故事和散文作家张爱玲被认为是王安忆作品的来源之一。尽管张爱玲的小说以上海和香港为背景，融合了传统和现代主义风格，但她的作品形成了鲜明对比，是中国现代文学中“五四”启蒙和革命宏大叙事的一剂解药。<br />
卢卡奇在《小说理论》的序言11-23中唤起了黑格尔对艺术的这种观点。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 06:53, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child.<br />
<br />
她的故事津津乐道于无关紧要的小事、小躁动、小琐事、小焦虑，描写都市人生活中的随机事件。对都市小资的狭隘浪漫和个性''小资''的描写耐人寻味，是她的强项和魅力所在。散文式描写在狭窄拥挤的城市环境中的生活，不仅是她小说的特点，也构成了她散文的主要主题。她的散文在对应和照应她的小说的同时，她对散文写作的思考也起到了凸显中国现代文学中散文主义审美品质的作用。<br />
张爱玲的散文集《流言》（有时译为《写在沃尔特上》）是中国城市文化中出现的散文的一个引人注目的例子。 在散文集的开篇《童言无忌》一文中，她仿佛在散文中随意畅聊、异想天开、任性地宣泄压抑的感情，像一个无拘无束的孩子。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有多大关系，应该通过写一本流行的自传，放弃从自我描绘中获得永生的梦想。对一个作家来说，满足和拯救是写“关于自己的事情的点点滴滴”。如常所说，自我关注的问题包括金钱、衣着、饮食、重要人物及其怪异的下体，以及家庭关系。在这篇第一篇文章的几页里，我们有各种各样的主题，表达了人们对消费习惯、在城市中的生存、在日益分化的城市文化中的个人和社会关系的兴趣。纵观这篇论文集的目录，我们很难将这些文章的重点分类，只说它们是在写观点，在城市生活中玩弄感知。他们触及任何在脑海中闪过的东西，经过视线的东西，吸引感官的东西，任何在城市环境中的陈规的或常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:42, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br />
<br />
While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br />
<br />
为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br />
<br />
当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br />
<br />
虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br />
<br />
As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br />
<br />
Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br />
<br />
In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br />
<br />
消费者心态，城市文化以及职业性养家糊口的新角色：作家的兴起，突显了娱乐，魅力，品味，表演，魅力和诱惑力的价值，这些都是城市文化所固有的价值，并且它们对于 娱乐，印象和景象有着不错的需求。 在张爱玲昙花一现之后的几十年中，这种新兴的社会历史背景被占主导地位的政治意识形态和历史叙事所掩盖和边缘化。<br />
<br />
加州大学伯克利分校的安德鲁·琼斯（Andrew Jones）正在将张爱玲的论文集翻译成英文，并使用了“在水上的书写”一词。<br />
<br />
在他最近的著作《上海现代》中，leo教授怀有钦佩地追溯了张爱玲的著作以及她所沉浸的商业城市文化。请参见《张爱玲：堕落的浪漫》 267-303章。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br />
<br />
'''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感再现了。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br />
<br />
This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br />
<br />
这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br />
<br />
关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度：在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道；疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，这些人必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。来自不同的地方的他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:48, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br />
<br />
'''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br />
<br />
'''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br />
<br />
王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br />
<br />
Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br />
<br />
评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br />
评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br />
<br />
这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
“Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br />
<br />
“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br />
<br />
从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br />
<br />
The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br />
<br />
虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br />
<br />
本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 "区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
虽然阿多诺的评论是恰当的，符合张爱玲和王安忆对散文的思考，但阿多诺的哲学框架是不同的：散文反对西方哲学传统高高在上的概念暴政。 在中国的文学传统中，散文并没有如此明确地定义反对既定的东西。我试图用本文论证，散文被认为是目的论历史的启蒙运动和马克思主义范式及其文学对应物：革命现实主义小说。<br />
本文是一次试图打破概念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用了马克斯·本塞的话说，“这篇文章有别于一部专著：--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br />
<br />
The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br />
<br />
See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br />
<br />
Adorno, 3-23.<br />
散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br />
放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br />
参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br />
<br />
阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br />
<br />
探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br />
<br />
比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br />
<br />
进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission.<br />
<br />
老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于以文学写作推动社会变革。他在 "文革 "后一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。他的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的发声，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于文学写作以推动社会变革。"文革 "后，他在一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，它是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。叔叔的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的传声筒，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br />
<br />
The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br />
<br />
叔叔所体现的历史意识是为了在史诗般的写作方式中找到其对应的形式：写实小说。 在卢卡奇的意味上，叔叔对世界的总体观是史诗般的。这位年轻的叙述者非常准确地捕捉到了这个世界观：<br />
<br />
叔叔过去几十年个人经历和生活被政治所充斥，这使他能够将自己世界观牢牢地依托于现实和政治。 国家和政府围绕着他的全世界，并构成了人类活动的广阔背景，人们的行为方式只是社会生活的代表。对他来说，文化的概念听起来很抽象，十分空洞的，甚至认为艺术还应该发挥现实和政治作用。（214-215）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br />
叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
《叔叔的故事》寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。《叔叔的故事》早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，《叔叔的故事》也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br />
<br />
在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br />
<br />
生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
在他的环球旅行中，历史的物质被清空，而充满了零碎的、漫无边际的印象，关于叔叔的生活和写作都逐渐变成个人的、无关的、不连续的片段。他的作品开始呈现出散文式的品质，接近纯粹的影像或拟像，越来越接近年轻一代的作品。真正的人际关系“只是一种文学幻想”。(227)，他回应了年轻一代。在美学的庇护下，“叔叔不再激动或感动，对痛苦免疫。”悲剧的痛苦现在只是一个文学类别，“意识到这一点是叔叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”(225)。与这种随笔风格相对应的是叔叔生活方式的改变。他更喜欢那些他认为庸俗、低俗或司空见惯的事情;--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br />
<br />
The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments.<br />
<br />
<br />
他变得更加无精打采而又热情洋溢。他对女性以及性爱和征服产生了浓厚的兴趣。他沉迷于庸俗和琐碎的追求，对金钱和艳丽的异国情调的收藏品狂喜不已。简而言之，他从史诗般的小说家和有机知识分子的形象变成了中产阶级专业作家，他的偏爱形式是随笔，其生活方式具有自我满足的“随笔”性质。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《叔叔》的转变反映了文学从一种历史根基的媒介退缩到一种轻松、有趣的娱乐和戏剧表演的形式。正如中篇小说的结尾所暗示的那样，这种变化的问题在于它是自欺欺人的。尽管《叔叔》蓄意创造了一个美丽的茧，但由于被压抑者的归还，他的杀手之子最终还是入侵了历史。他的儿子体现了《叔叔》创造中所有的痛苦记忆和可耻的经历，不适合他小说中的史诗般的治疗方式，而对他空灵、透气、杂文主义的实验则表现出压抑。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br />
<br />
儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed.<br />
<br />
它是一种对以前的被控制意识形态的生活的解放，它现在变得更私人，更脱节和碎片化，更远离极权主义的社会和政治进程。然而，历史并不是像年轻的叙述者或叔叔自己在追赶时尚时想象的那样可操控的。中国的社会现实与人们所希望的散文式的嬉闹并不那么吻合。因此，散文作为一种文化形式，处于一种从历史的负担中解脱出来与可能回归压迫状态之间的张力之中。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
'''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br />
'''<br />
<br />
''Mary Scoggin''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br />
<br />
拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br />
<br />
玛丽·斯高格<br />
<br />
文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations.<br />
<br />
诗歌至少需要大声朗读，重复和品尝才能真正达到效果，而与诗歌不同的是，杂文在报纸的背面短暂地露面，读者边看边发出神秘笑声，叹息声或鼻息声，还没等读者找到座位坐下，就迅速将其扔掉。读者对道德和政治上具有挑衅性的“当下杂文”又爱又恨，而作者跨越式的书写杂文，并通过出版机构来建立大量互文性的对话。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br />
<br />
In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br />
<br />
杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br />
<br />
在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着"杂文"。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 "匕首和长矛 "流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，"杂文"[字面意思是 "杂文"，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 "中国性"的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br />
<br />
In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br />
<br />
鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br />
<br />
在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br />
<br />
在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br />
In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br />
至于称这一文体为现代中国“杂文”， 是因为其浓烈的中国特性。西方人理解起来，确实困难。因此杂文研究对他们来说也很难。美国作家赛珍珠曾说过：“这一文体称为“杂文”， 太过独特，这真的太难以理解了。这就是为什么只有中国人自己能评析“杂文”这一事物。（张华笔下的严修[除注释之外，其他所有部分为奚慕里翻译]）<br />
在这篇文章中，作为一个赫赫有名的作家与评论家，严修以一种相对直率的方式,明晰地表达出鲁迅蔑视以外国权威标准对散文体裁分名别类。然而严修也保留了类似“杂文”式，典型的轻松趣味风格。他进一步进行他的评述：--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br />
<br />
Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br />
但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br />
虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但我们不必担心这种外国人长期不承认杂文的情况。即使一个外国人产生了其研究杂文的心思，恐怕他们自己研究得身无分文，饿死也研究不出来什么。但中国人都很容易理解他们。如果他们不能保持中国读者对他们的欣赏和理解，这种做法就会失传。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因和意义，是值得认真研究和理论化的（同上）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然长期以来，外国人都不承认中国杂文，但我们也不必为此忧心忡忡。即使一个外国人突发奇想地要研究杂文，恐怕研究到身无分文，饥肠辘辘，他/她也研究不出什么东西，而我们中国人理解起杂文却很轻松。但如果中国读者不能理解或一直赏析杂文的话，那么其也将不复存在了。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因与意义就很值得认真地研究并理论化。（同上）。<br />
杂文晦涩难懂，但也是富于趣味的一种散文体裁。因此在免于破产的风险下，我真的建议大家勇敢地研究并对这一文化形成理论。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:55, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br />
<br />
So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br />
<br />
从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br />
<br />
Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br />
<br />
在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br />
下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br />
<br />
杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br />
''<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br />
So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br />
''<br />
<br />
<br />
一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br />
一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br />
<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
“Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸！”是一种显而易见对杂文的不着边际的评价，这种情况下支持课外的流派是下层知识分子，例如邵燕心，他本身是怀着悲痛的心从中国核心诗歌期刊《诗刊》辞职，并全身心将写杂文作为其正式职业。在看到某不知名的省级干部“呸呸呸”的不满评价，同时也感受到自己对这种令人大失所望的事所担负的责任，邵写下他所发现的，这位省级干部的确对党、民族以及人民写有挖苦、讽刺、非难的文章，就像“到处都在呸呸呸”一样，他进一步发出警告，这样的言论正传播一种绝望沮丧的氛围。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:54, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br />
<br />
The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br />
<br />
在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br />
<br />
A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br />
<br />
A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br />
<br />
例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br />
<br />
第三个层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 "文学与百姓生活"）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 "文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 "的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 "全民办报（出版）"的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br />
<br />
第三层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br />
<br />
In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br />
作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br />
<br />
作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了"耶利米德"的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br />
<br />
我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br />
三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br />
<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br />
<br />
沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br />
1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
想到这一点，眼泪就掉了，开心的笑声无法表达出来。” -我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的任何收藏中都没有。<br />
<br />
在引述的“幸运的救援”一词中，邵衍祥对唐复安禄山叛乱期间杜甫的逃亡的暗示与之相似但更为深刻的脉络。 邵军在这篇文章中的总体结构是一个反复出现的周期性寓言，它与日本人，国民党和共产主义者在最后一个人的严厉谴责中并驾齐驱，因为只有一支侵略军干扰了普通中国人民的生活。 人民交警也在这个周期中取代了他们的位置，愚蠢地提醒我们，我们仍然处在“杂文”领域。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 05:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br />
<br />
仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br />
<br />
Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br />
<br />
在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br />
<br />
实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br />
<br />
She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br />
It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br />
<br />
因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br />
这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因为这篇文章写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但他用北京东站谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"（奈格乐）了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，总编辑的两位客人突然说道，“他们在干什么！？”但她仍然保持着平静的样子，拒绝把这次警方的访问解释为一种邪恶的姿态。<br />
这只是手稿，他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在看书，有两个，我真的不知道，我想他们也喜欢看吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:14, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br />
<br />
In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br />
<br />
当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合"。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 "叛乱 "。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。" 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、"今天 "和不顾一切的 "寸土寸金 "联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br />
<br />
It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br />
<br />
一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br />
那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 "丑陋 "的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，"骡子 "文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''一个更大的趋势：用混乱的声音揭示丑陋的真相'''<br />
这几乎是一个定义的问题，那么，不和谐的、麻烦的音调是特点，即使是最美丽的杂文也如此。我在这里没有说明“丑陋的”杂文，但它们确确实实存在，而且数量繁多。许多杂文充斥着一种说教、迂腐的语气，这对中国和外国读者来说有时是相当令人讨厌的。然而，与中国文学中较大的一类散文一样，杂文仍然是中国报纸文学副刊的主要内容，许多著名作家在后来的职业生涯中都转向写杂文。在当代历史上，“骡子”类型的杂文也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了其谦卑的姿态（see Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br />
<br />
''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.)<br />
<br />
这种类型吸引了杰出的作家，并引起了中国读者的极大关注？我认为答案在于中国文学史的机械性假设。要审视这一问题，我们需要抛开特定的杂文，从当代中国批评家的全球化视角审视中国文学。<br />
“杂文”作为一个范畴，给汉语和非汉语的分类都带来了问题，但中西方对“杂文”的处理有着明显的分歧。“杂文”是近年来国外华文文学研究中一个被忽视的课题，但也有少数例外（阿奇恩中国现代文学随笔会议是一个罕见的例外，有几篇论文专门讨论了扎文）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 13:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br />
尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie "bad literature" directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature.<br />
<br />
这些对中国例外论的主张也许有些夸大其词。但我认为，在我所说的语调中心使命的推动下，这一体裁产生了一些明显的张力和做法，它们成为了国际上对中国文化其他方面研究的绊脚石。<br />
在中国文学研究的这些障碍中，最主要的是我所说的“糟糕文学”抱怨。[最近对这一投诉的肯定，见胡志德1990，麦独,1997，林克，2000，美国汉学早期的观点将“糟糕文学”与政治暴政直接联系在一起。]总结几条截然不同的论据，我们的建议是，尽管中国文学的所有希望都是一种自然诗意的语言，有着丰富、受人尊敬和保存完好的传统，具有汉字和语言结构的独特视觉和语法优势，而且还具有专门的文学作品“军队”，用现代汉语比喻制度中有组织、有支持的作家，中国现代文学未能产生真正伟大的文学作品。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br />
<br />
1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br />
<br />
2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br />
<br />
3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br />
<br />
4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br />
<br />
显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在" 杂文"中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices.<br />
<br />
这种坏文学不仅仅只是暴政或者夸张修辞之下的残缺产物，也不只是一种业余文学的表达或者一种挣扎着现代化的文化的表现。取而代之的是，它们被认为是近乎非自愿的标记，不是美感，而是我们必须呼吁缺少一个更好的词“真相”，这是通过对缺点和问题的严格审查而发现的，再次是由于缺乏 更好的词是“文化”。 在当代中国理论体系中或多或少采用了高度现代意识形态的文化，反对报纸社论和文学短篇小说以及现代写作实践的其他典型流派的中性现代性。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:42, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些“低沉”的语调并不仅仅是专制或夸张造成的缺陷或错误，也不仅仅是一种业余文学的表达或者一种文化试图现代化的表现。相反，他们被认为几乎是无意识的标记，不是关于美，而是我们将不得不呼吁的，缺少一个更好的词——“真相”，这是通过对缺点和问题的批判性研究揭示的，这些问题似乎源于，同样缺乏一个更好的词——“文化”。 在当代中国理论体系中或多或少采用了高度现代意识形态的文化，反对报纸社论和文学短篇小说以及现代写作实践的其他典型流派的中性现代性。<br />
--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:18, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br />
<br />
Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br />
<br />
文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br />
<br />
在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
……而中国文化对以往在中国文学中应用过的体裁有这颠覆性的影响。<br />
考察语气在更广泛的中国文化语境中揭示了一些特殊的方式，为了与真理的权威进行交流，社会交换、引用和其他一些应使用朴实的（中性的、现代的）词语的普通的义务中，必须与典型的汉语语调相交。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 06:01, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br />
<br />
It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85).<br />
<br />
''杂文''正是在这个问题上经常进行评论。 蓝翎是 "新调 "杂文理论的主要反对者，通过写杂文 "丑陋的真相 "，提出了富有争议评论。 在一篇文章中，他问道，为什么当一个 "正直而受人尊敬的老作家 "宣布他现在打算说/写 "真理 "时，人们会如此大惊小怪，(他指的是巴金，见''随感录'')，蓝翎以自己的经验证明了确立真理的困难。<br />
<br />
那是几十年前，他们 "斗争 "我，说我是 "反动派"。我回答说："我根本不是反动的，事实上，我是行动的"。 他们说："你又在狡辩了，你在撒谎，谁听说过'行动派'这种东西？" ......但如果我说的是假话，那当然就意味着他们说的是真的，这样我的政治标签就完成了。"反动派" 几十年后，这个结论被推翻和纠正了，所以现在我说的话成了真理。 （兰，85）。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br />
<br />
这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，"无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧"。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 "劣质文学 "的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
''Tone in Historical Context''<br />
<br />
As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry.<br />
<br />
历史背景下的音调<br />
<br />
为了证明这是情态修辞启发了扎文这一体裁的产生，我在这篇文章的结尾简要介绍了音调在历史中的表现。音调的概念（也是人们讨论的“调”，“音”，“韵”）最终源于音乐中的文字，这很关键，而且这也经常是中文潜台词的一部分。即使它作为一个隐喻，在应用于中文书写时，它必须消除声音的声学品质，但语气仍与声音中或类似声音的事物保持联系，强调客观，口头，非正式和情感方面的品质，而这并不是声音的一部分。理性的阐释过程，这就是杂文的“诗”。音调在围绕和组成写作的众多社交活动中发挥着作用。它出现在音乐人物中，成为最有影响力的文学和诗歌理论中的中心隐喻。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:32, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br />
<br />
The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br />
<br />
例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br />
<br />
情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 "音"。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=11214620201214 trans2020-12-14T07:44:09Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Dan 彭丹 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安出现的社会主义教育体系中，报道文学的研究与创作和组织并参演剧团演出一起，成为青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安时，研究撰写报道文学和组织参演剧团演出，成为当时社会主义教育体系中青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 06:12, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，所以他们在四十年代前的文学经验有限。对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光帮助他们定义了文学是如何由形成到产出的。秦牧却没有去过延安，他的整个战争时期都是在广东，广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧仍然是没有被这种文化环境所浸染的。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，在十九世纪四十年代前，他们还没有太多文学创作经验。因此对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光让他们明白文学从形成到完成是一个什么样的过程。然而，秦牧从没有去过延安，整个战争时期他都是在广东、广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧没有受到这种文化环境的熏陶。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 06:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br />
<br />
社会主义或者说共产主义曾经处于主导地位（如抗日时期的延安，然后贯穿1949中国成立以来整个时期）批判散文写作（无论是小品文还是报告文学）可以说，它已经在战时经过多次实践，从文化官员的角度来说，它变得更加不可信。纪实文学需要成为公众庆祝和历史成就的文学工具【如：杨朔《钢铁的大军》（前进，钢铁的大军，1949），中华散文珍藏本，杨朔卷（北京：人民文学出版社，1998）25-33；《平常的人》（平常的人，1951）25-33；杨朔卷13-17，《戈壁滩上的春天》（戈壁滩上的春天，1953），阳朔卷29-33】。这恰好是丁玲的困境，参加延安协会，作为同一批人中受到良好训练的敏锐批评家。除了那些参加社会主义教育文化系统但是相对年轻的人，这是一次尴尬的转变。对他们来说，文学事业正在建造一个前所未有的新视野。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:37, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
'''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br />
<br />
Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br />
<br />
'''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''作家角色的变化改变了散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年之间，是清王朝覆灭和中华民国建立后的短短几年。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十出头。他们年龄相仿，处于相同的历史和文化氛围下，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的方式参与战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School.<br />
刘柏宇[1916-?, 源自. 刘玉赞，北京. 参见牛云清, 刘柏宇 平专（重庆：重庆出版社，1995).]抵达延安也很早，并很快就投入到了当地的文学活动中去。在他抵达数周后，尽管刘当时才22岁，毛泽东亲自派他带领一个五人护卫队，并陪同美国海军观察员埃文斯·卡森参观中国北部的游击地区（一个派遣各种类型“文化工作者”的共产党基地）。尽管开了一个充满前景的好头以及偶尔会与毛主席接触，刘出版的作品还是引起了某些批评家和政府工作人员的不满，因此，他在毛泽东讲话后成了延安正风运动的目标，并在中央党校进行了互相批评以及自我批评的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br />
<br />
Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br />
<br />
因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br />
<br />
因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br />
<br />
Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda.<br />
<br />
因此，他有一种特别独立的特质，这一特质使得他在1949年后与作家协会的关系有些紧张。他在1957年的正风运动中遭到攻击，且直到1962年才加入共产党。<br />
<br />
因此，1949年后，尤其是百花运动期间和百花运动之后，每一位作家在接触到写作时都会表现出不同程度的紧张。然而,他们都以散文为载体来表达自己,尽管有时这些文章似乎表面上是适度的或过度的宣传。<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br />
<br />
The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br />
<br />
社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br />
<br />
由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
社会散文的发展和关注点<br />
<br />
由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br />
<br />
In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism.<br />
<br />
与左派美学的摩擦<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代末和60年代初，“散文”一词更多地与“抒情性”(抒情)联系在一起，而非“说理性”(说理)。在实践中，这表现在冗长的描述性段落，经常使用第二人称直接称呼读者，以及修辞性的疑问句、祈使句和表达性助词。在狂热表达的时候，社会主义性散文呈现出一种赋式的修辞、句法上的排比，具象堆砌以及华丽的词藻。有人试着将这种语言丰富的尝试与朱自清和俞平伯等某些民国时期风格明显的散文家联系起来，但社会主义性散文在语言和情感显露方面更加丰富。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:31, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape.<br />
<br />
从意象层面来看，人们对战争时期遗留下来的光，火及火把等意象十分着迷的现象仍然存在（在刘白羽1940年代后期的报道文学作品中尤为显著），不过到1950年代后兴趣点开始转向于花卉意象。（秦牧的散文作品以及杨朔的部分作品中充满花卉植物等意象，这些意象自成一体，同时具有象征之意）。最后，三位作家的共同策略是将远景或某种经验想象成为一副写生风景画，强调视觉的重要性及随之而来的欣喜和振奋之情。在某些情况下，这些充满视觉冲击的文章配有插图，而插图与充满视觉化风景的文章之间出奇地吻合。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 06:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
'''Yang Shuo'''<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br />
<br />
'''杨朔'''<br />
<br />
杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是大谈山水画的典范。 虽然文章只是讲述了作者登顶著名的泰山的过程，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的比喻结构交相辉映。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种富有形象和描述性语言的巧妙构思。第二个要素：杨写道“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:02, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br />
<br />
The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br />
<br />
这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br />
<br />
文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br />
<br />
文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br />
<br />
In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad.<br />
<br />
为了（第二天）能按时起来看日出，游客们很早就上床睡觉了，夜晚在靠近顶峰的地方，天气很是晴朗，但是在黎明时分，一夜之间水雾缭绕，天空乌云密布 。但作者前一天晚上对的社会主义/共产主义景观的顿悟，使平庸的游客对期望看到美丽日出的愿望黯然失色--他看到了地平线上的中国人/民族的“另一种”（形而上的）日出。<br />
<br />
在他关于昆明的山茶花的文章中，[《茶花赋》写于1961年，摘自《东风第一枝》. 杨134-37] 杨朔开篇就写道与一位画家朋友讨论什么样的画能展示 "祖国"的面貌。 接着，他转而谈到从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
顶峰附近晚上的天气已经晴朗，为了第二天能够早起赶上日出，这时聚会早早就结束了。雨雾逗留一整夜，黎明时变得灰蒙蒙的。但是作者前一天傍晚的社会主义/共产主义景观顿悟掩盖了普通游客对美丽日出的渴望，他看到了“另一种”（抽象的）日出，即地平线上的中国人/民族的日出。<br />
<br />
杨朔写关于昆明插茶花的散文时 [《茶花赋》出自《东风第一枝》杨朔134-37]，他先与一位艺术家朋友讨论哪种描绘可以展现“祖国”的面貌。之后，他谈论了从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:36, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br />
<br />
特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被遍布在这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内的美丽山茶花迷住了，这一路有该市景观设计师金志文陪同着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。园丁本人的详尽描述也是作者了解所指之物的关键。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:58, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br />
<br />
我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br />
<br />
What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br />
<br />
当作者观察到一群来观赏山茶花的小学生时，山茶花和孩童们之间的联系就建立了，“怎样画出祖国的面貌特色”这个谜题也就解开了——画童子面茶花。<br />
<br />
在杨朔的抒情诗中，除了这些例子外，还有许多不协调之处，就是无论他的文章的象征意义多么明显，感情多么热烈，几乎总是在负面因素的带动下产生矛盾：为什么在“泰山最高峰”上颂扬社会主义进步，却要以壮观的日出为代价？普之仁“经历”了什么，使他的皱纹加深了？为什么这种痛苦与创造美感有关？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
'''Liu Baiyu'''<br />
<br />
Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s.<br />
<br />
刘白羽在国内向三文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''刘白羽'''<br />
<br />
刘白羽在国内向散文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 04:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br />
<br />
20世纪50年代末的中国岁月静好，现世安稳；而彼时《灯火》的诞生则带我们重回马革裹尸的战场。《灯火》，以抗战时期到社会主义经济建设时期的不同发展阶段为背景，通过强有力的、入木三分的修辞手段，刻画了灯火的形象，将刘白羽最初想要透过灯火告诉我们的激进斗争意识很好地嵌入其中。[《灯火》（Lamplight),刘白羽，《红玛瑙集》（Red agate)(北京：文化艺术出版社，1983）5-11.]显而易见，刘白羽虽然在当时的文学界影响力颇大，但他仍与文学界的某些观点格格不入，特别是在对战场的污名化方面：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪50年代末的中国岁月静好，现世安稳；而彼时《灯火》的诞生则带我们重回战场。《灯火》以抗战时期到社会主义经济建设时期的不同阶段为背景，通过有力的、入木三分的修辞手段，刻画了灯火的形象，将刘白羽最初想要透过灯火告诉我们的激进斗争意识很好地嵌入其中。[《灯火》（Lamplight),刘白羽，《红玛瑙集》（Red agate)(北京：文化艺术出版社，1983）5-11.] 显而易见，刘白羽虽然在当时的文学界影响颇大，但仍与文学界的某些观点格格不入，特别是在战场的污名化方面：--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 05:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
. . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br />
<br />
...现如今，有些人对待战争话题上，无论对错，不分黑白，总把它们弄得血腥，黑暗又恐怖！他们称之为“通过士兵的眼睛”，“现实主义散兵坑”！这让我们那些腿上绑着绑腿，肩上扛着火药捧腹大笑。你可以做些什么？有勇敢的士兵为正义而战；有反革命的凶手；并且有懦弱的叛国贼。有不同种类的战士就应该有不同种的观点，还得要有不同种类的“现实主义散兵坑”。也许有些人会批评我：我怎么能从那些明亮的地方得出这些关于战争的言论，那我不是跑题了吗？其实上并没有。我在说的点也许是个小问题，但这确实映射出的是战争中实际生活。回到主题，在松花江寒冷的荒野上，穿越冬日的雪地，穿越夏日的急流，从光照下，我能够体会到某种温暖。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:30, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
"The Brilliance of Spring,"[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br />
<br />
"春光灿烂"（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 "百花齐放"）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"春天的辉煌"，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 "百花"）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br />
<br />
这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这篇文章以视觉化形式呈现，黎明时分，天安门广场的建筑工地上有长相帅气但是衣服褴褛的工人，作者还想起其他场景，当他就在“那里，那个位置！” 其中就一个很重要的一段记忆就是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有人民解放军回北京和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式的记忆。但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 01:51, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br />
<br />
刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br />
<br />
尽管渴望通过真实的体验来密切联系群众，但作家更多的是通过共产党的组织活动和联系来接触工农兵。 读刘白羽在上个世纪五六十年代创作的文章中，你可以感觉到他为了使自身的经历（努力使其真实感最大化）和他所描述的人物发挥最大作用所做的努力是不太协调的。(《写在太阳初升的时候》，Hong manao ji 34-52 [写于1959年？]) 在主体层面上，由于他所写的（模范）工人等都是模范和领袖，已经是（体现）地方共产党行政机关的一部分，他们也在努力给人以正确的印象，把自己的经验和思想正确地表达出来，按照人们所期望的方式去做。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
'''Qin Mu'''<br />
<br />
Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br />
<br />
<br />
秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br />
<br />
秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br />
<br />
一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有一次，我透过飞机窗凝视珠江三角洲：天空万里无云、湛蓝如许。低头一看，我不禁欢呼起来！珠江三角洲实在太壮观了，简直妙不可言！河流和湖泊星罗棋布，在阳光下熠熠生辉；而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀刻画出来一般；田野块块分明，与棋盘别无二致。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神明和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹正发生在这片土地上。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:03, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br />
<br />
在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br />
<br />
Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br />
<br />
这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。("一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后"。30)<br />
<br />
秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 "写什么？"这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br />
<br />
秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br />
<br />
But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br />
<br />
通过阅读这篇文章，我们不难发现秦牧的大受欢迎不是因为他显而易见的马克思列宁主义，而是其影响广泛的、永不过时的、普遍适用的以及几乎包罗万象的视野和深思。秦牧的许多或大部分文章都有种令人兴奋的广博感。<br />
政治语境下，这篇文章如杨朔的《山水沉思录》一样，在重构的情况下才于苏联太空探索的早年间写就。在秦牧看来，这一领域中苏联的成功与美国的失败是历史的清晰指示。他以几乎过火的言辞声明，资本主义在太空探索以及一般科学的失败意味着资本主义世界观无法摆脱过时的信念，而社会主义则是容易且自然地与科学成果和进步结合在一起的。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:51, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br />
<br />
秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br />
<br />
'''结论'''<br />
<br />
"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br />
<br />
"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是没有意义的；通过向他们一样去观察或者想象这个世界，他们就帮助创造了社会主义世界，这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的模板进行写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界，他们帮助把社会主义世界写成了现实。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br />
<br />
斯拉沃伊·齐泽克对帕斯卡的解释是，信仰实际上可以从刻意通过仪式和对信徒的模仿中产生，齐泽克进一步指出，任何社会中的“现实”都是由它特有的意识形态幻想产生的，这暗示了对社会主义散文的类似解释。[斯拉瓦伊·齐泽克，《崇高的意识形态》(伦敦:Verso, 1989) 38-43]他认为，通过信仰的仪式活动，个体已经在没有意识到的情况下相信了它，而这种信仰对于意识的控制只是时间问题。但是在意识形态的幻想中，社会现实代表在边缘和阴影中暗示着这种幻想的不可能性。我所说的杨烁、刘白羽和秦木作品中的“不协调”，是指那些几乎无意识的玷污了原始视觉的暗示。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是就像至于一个真空环境之下一样，中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个自我封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br />
<br />
''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br />
<br />
““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br />
<br />
'''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br />
<br />
Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br />
<br />
这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br />
<br />
审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 "传统姿态"，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br />
<br />
对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br />
<br />
作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 "作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为"。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br />
采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 "互动"。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br />
<br />
In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br />
<br />
此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br />
总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br />
<br />
总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br />
<br />
In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br />
<br />
在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br />
<br />
在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br />
<br />
In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br />
<br />
Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br />
<br />
传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br />
<br />
Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br />
<br />
“Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br />
现代文本从对已确立的意义和价值的质疑和重新评估演变而来，而不仅仅是对被认为是传统观念、习俗和理想的排斥。一旦剥夺了传统的绝对权利，接受了解释和重建，现代性就会出现。<br />
<br />
一般来说，“手势”指的是“为了传达某人的意图或态度的行动。旅行者的活动不仅仅是有明显目的的行动，比如到达某个地点或参观某个地点。罗兰·巴特关于书写中的手势和作为手势的书写的概念暗示了地点散文中意义的多样性，并最终证明了地点散文作为写作文本的观点。在《形式的责任》一书中，罗兰·巴特将艺术中的“姿态”描述为一种行为的多余。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
[s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br />
<br />
Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br />
<br />
Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
[t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br />
类似于一种行为的盈余。动作是及物性的，它只寻求刺激一个对象，一个结果;手势是一种不确定的、无穷无尽的原因、脉动、懒惰的总和，它以一种气氛围绕着动作[…]。因此，让我们把寻求产生信息的信息和寻求产生智力的符号，与无需寻求产生任何东西而产生其余一切(“剩余”)的手势区分开来。<br />
穿越山脉和湖泊是有具体目标的活动。这些作为“姿态”或“剩余行动”的活动，在朱、于、方的文章中，最终是一种态度的标志，通过提供可能性而不是界定意义和意义，来不断地质疑和改变意义。<br />
<br />
根据Roland Barthes的说法，每一篇文章最终都是手势的产物，讨论了美国画家Cy Twombly (b. 1928)的作品，Roland Barthes进一步谈到了手势的作用:<br />
<br />
艺术家[…]就身份而言，他是一个手势的“操作者”:他试图产生一种效果，但同时又不寻求这种效果;他所产生的效果他并没有义务去寻求;它们是颠倒的，无意的影响，反过来影响到他，并因此引起某些修改，偏差，线条和笔划的缓和。因此，手势废除了因果、动机和目标、表情和说服之间的区别(Barthes 160)。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br />
<br />
郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br />
<br />
在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br />
这三篇文章都试图在穿越不同的风景时采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和后果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素中的一个。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这三篇文章在穿越不同情景时，都试图采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和结果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的描述的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
'''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br />
<br />
Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br />
<br />
It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
'''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br />
<br />
与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br />
<br />
需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br />
<br />
遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br />
<br />
重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br />
Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals.<br />
<br />
朱自清与歌星女孩的相遇是在其他路人的围观下，这使得气氛紧张起来，他的行为也变得不安。 通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背了他的意愿的。<br />
然而，具有讽刺意味的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙加强了距离感，误解和疏离感，这些都根植于现代知识分子所遇到的困境中。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在其他路人的围观下朱自清与歌星女孩相遇了，这使得气氛紧张，他也变得不安。通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背他的意愿的。<br />
然而，讽刺的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙强化了源自现代知识分子困境的距离感，误解和疏离感。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br />
<br />
The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br />
<br />
朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br />
<br />
文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br />
<br />
文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，也十分地尴尬。<br />
<br />
文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。朱自清的先进思想抑制了他的欲望，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br />
<br />
Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br />
<br />
这一遭遇使朱自清很快打消了采用传统姿态的想法，在秦淮河上他的内心并没有得到安宁，而是充满困惑和冲突。朱自清在此地体验到的紧张感，来自他试图在周围的环境中坚持自己的身份，但这种尝试是徒劳的，于是他也不可能融入秦淮河的夜景中。<br />
<br />
只有当朱自清的内心冲突有所缓和时，他和俞平伯才怡然自若。在回去的路上，他们经过一只载妓的板船，妓女在船上唱着清歌。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一遭遇使朱自清很快打消了采用传统姿态的想法，在秦淮河上他的内心并没有得到安宁，而是充满困惑和冲突。朱自清在此地感受到的紧张，来自他试图在周围的环境中坚持自己的身份，但这种尝试是徒劳的，因此他也不可能融入秦淮河的夜景中。<br />
<br />
只有当朱自清的内心冲突有所缓和时，他和俞平伯才怡然自若。在回去的路上，他们经过一只载妓的板船，妓女在船上唱着清歌。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:54, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br />
<br />
歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
歌妓坐在没有灯光的船头，独自唱着歌。对朱自清来说，这个意外的插曲暂时弥补了之前的遗憾，然而，这种满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和俞平伯回到了繁华的闹市。其实二人并没有真的遇到那个孤独的歌妓，也有可能歌妓根本没有注意到他们，但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的语言姿势。只要他们保持一定的距离，这个姿态的意义似乎就有可能被传达出来，然而最终由于朱自清没有维持这一姿态，所以没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br />
<br />
Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br />
<br />
他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，"仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
<br />
'''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br />
<br />
不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，"如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
<br />
'''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br />
<br />
不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br />
<br />
郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
路上的崎岖加上内心的不安，使得郁达夫上山的一路都走得不平稳。他此行的意义也模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫启程桐君山参观一座道观。一下渡船，山路崎岖漆黑，他被一块乱石绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候选择去爬山似乎不可理喻，而正常的行走也几乎不可能了。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br />
<br />
渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
船夫递给他一盒火柴帮助他找到路。起初，于是“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。广阔的天空和广阔的视野延伸到远处的城镇，似乎增加了俞正声采用传统的姿态，思考地点和过去的机会。然而，当他接近寺庙时，围绕寺庙的矮墙中一个明显被锁住的门阻碍了他的前进。他踱来踱去，不知如何是好，最后他试了试大门，结果门开了。具有讽刺意味的是，于的行程被推迟，甚至几乎被缩短，不是因为一扇锁着的门，而是因为他的优柔寡断和犹豫。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br />
<br />
虽然他发现寺庙的门夜晚确实是紧紧关着的，但此时他还是很满足于坐在与门相邻的城墙上，从那里他可以俯瞰河流，欣赏风景。他凝视着天上的星星、云朵和月亮，以及下面在风中轻轻摇曳的船只的灯光。最后，郁达夫的位置让他能够从一个更高的、独立的有利位置思考过去。同郡山无与伦比的风景激发了郁达夫对东汉(公元25-220年)隐士严子陵和东晋(317-420年)戴波和戴勇的生活的思考，他们把这里作为自己的家。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br />
<br />
郁达夫完全理解并尊重他们隐居的决定，并预示着自己的隐居生活即将开始。镇上守夜的钟声把将他唤醒。他吓了一跳，背对着船跑去。他的遐想戛然而止，突然急着要回到船上，与这段文字中反映出来的气氛和情感形成了鲜明的对比。传统的手势突然终止了。就像钟声将他惊动一般，这个突然结束的夜景让读者大吃一惊。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br />
<br />
In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br />
<br />
在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--<br />
<br />
在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在去钓台的船上，郁达夫赏景后觉得疲倦，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦中出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br />
<br />
在这首诗中，一个突出的传统形象是这个忠诚的官员，他假装疯狂（佯狂）地说出了未被注意的真理。这里，一个众所众知的传统手势被嵌入到文本中的文本中。然而，在做这个手势之前，他这一次再次被叫醒于的船夫终止了。<br />
<br />
Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
很明显，于对他周围的看法改变了。在入睡之前，他看见连绵的青山环绕清澈的河流，沙洲上百花盛开，总之就是一幅祥和的如画风景。然而，当船接近钓台时，周围的山水画已经不知不觉间改变了。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br />
<br />
The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br />
<br />
河流越来越窄，山也越来越近，“好像没有前进的路了。” 高耸的山脉营造出一种压抑的孤独气氛，甚至船桨的声音都令人沮丧：回声过了很久才能听到，更加渲染了“古老的寂静”，将“灭绝的寂静”笼罩在船上。 太阳落山了，只有风阵阵吹过。<br />
周围环境变得阴郁，于的期待变成了恐惧。 相比于他在铜军山上的遐想，于现在认为钓鱼台是荒凉而阴沉的，怪异地回响着他诗歌中的混乱无序、动荡不安。 他描述了杂草上乱乱的石头。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:43, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br />
<br />
On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility.<br />
然而，他身临钓台，亲看其景，却感叹与明信片上所见差别极大，周围更加荒芜杂乱，仅此而已。但此情此景实际上更说明了东方民族堕落的冷落之美。讽刺地是，余秋雨对明信片和实景的对比只是更加强调了景色色彩的相似性而已。他观的这个地方，本身就自带现今危难的印记。把他对景色的描述和代表国家稳定秩序的瑞士联系在一起只是徒增国家衰弱混乱的印象罢了。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br />
<br />
After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br />
<br />
这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
'''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br />
<br />
By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br />
<br />
Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br />
<br />
方令孺《琅琊山游记》中的自我指称策略<br />
自我指称策略通过凸显文本的建构性对文本明确、权威的意义提出了质疑。该策略指出，文本意义的多元性进一步证实了它们在谈判视角、立场和身份上的重要性。方令孺在对其两天旅行的叙述结尾处写道：“琅琊山上仍有许多名胜古迹；如果命中注定，我还会再来一次。我没有什么可以补充的了(我的重点)。”<br />
方令孺,《琅琊山游记》, 编著，马忠林，杨国璋, 王钟华, 北京:中国旅游出版社, 1982:148.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br />
<br />
When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br />
<br />
当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的特别菜肴和美酒。她的叙述非常乏味且跟着一个虎头蛇尾的附录。之后，这段叙述之后又加了两端来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:06, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的一种特别的菜肴和葡萄酒。对她的叙述进行这种乏味且虎头蛇尾的补充之后，她又加了两段来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”----[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br />
<br />
It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time.<br />
方令孺的文章的最后两段完成了个人反思的框架，其中包含了她对旅行的冷静叙述。个人记忆是有意义体验的最终轨迹，也是文章背后的创作力量。尽管断言与此相反，在表述一种经历时，穷尽的事实和细节并不会使文本结束。她的最后一句话表明，与人类相遇密切相关的旅行记忆是她满足的来源，而不是模仿传统手势，似乎承诺了一个权威的地点和时间的再现。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 07:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br />
<br />
Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br />
<br />
与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br />
<br />
By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br />
<br />
朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br />
<br />
通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br />
<br />
五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
'''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br />
<br />
''Wang Ban''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction.<br />
<br />
这篇文章摆脱了历史意识，对消费文化的到来做出了热情而轻松的回应。 它旨在满足城市消费者的适度需求，因为他们的敏感性正变得“散文化”，平淡无奇，历史悠久，每天都在忙于处理最私密和琐碎的事情。 本文回顾了张爱玲的论文思想，并试图追溯现代论文与城市消费文化兴起之间的联系。 然后，通过分析王安忆的中篇小说《叔叔的故事》，我展示了王的摸索，探索性论文/小说如何戏剧性地从历史意识退缩到我所说的感觉的文章结构。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 07:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br />
<br />
'''The Essay and the Novel'''<br />
<br />
The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br />
<br />
主人公叔叔的事业说明了历史意识的减弱。 本文力求指出，散文的矛盾之处在于其摆脱了宏大叙事的束缚，并且对中国崛起的消费文化中历史意识的衰落做出了贡献。<br />
<br />
'''散文与小说'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文化形式，可以与小说联系起来。 在20世纪的中国，可能直到1980年代中期为止，史诗般的现实主义小说一直是文学的主要形式和重要的意识形态工具。中国现实主义小说可以用乔治·卢卡奇（GeorgLukács）的方式解释为史诗。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br />
<br />
Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br />
批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56).<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听起来不合时宜，我们可以通过引用革命理想和社会现实、理论和实践的统一来证明其合理性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中的一个突出宗旨。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种神话和史诗结构，在这种结构中，梦想和历史、个人和集体成为一体。 在卢卡斯看来，史诗是缩略的小说，因为后者是一种脱胎于前者的直接的、没有问题的理想与现实的统一的形式(56)。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:41, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一来证明其正确性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦想与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡斯看来，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者是一种剥离了前者直接的、毫无问题的理想与现实统一的形式（56）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条，即争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦幻与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡奇，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者脱离了前者直接而毫无疑问的理想与现实的统一（56）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br />
<br />
The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br />
<br />
换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br />
<br />
在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br />
<br />
和革命现实主义和乌托邦主义一样，慷慨激昂的抒情小说中一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期苦难和贫穷之间的差距，另一方面，实现共产主义最终理想，实现理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式的小说应该远不止我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚舒舒服服地蜷缩在沙发上阅读的文本。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启迪式的宏大叙事题材实践。这种小说旨在促使你上街或到贫穷的村庄，和其他人们组织起来创造历史。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
小说中的抒情繁荣被等同于革命唯心主义和乌托邦主义时，似乎就显得格格不入，其一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期导致的苦难和贫穷；另一方面，实现了共产主义最终理想，实现了理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式下的小说不是我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚，舒服蜷缩在沙发上看的那类小说。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启发性的，其宏大的叙事投射了物质实践。 它的目的是鼓励您走上街头或走进贫困的村庄，并与其他同伴一起创造历史。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br />
<br />
散文在当代中国的兴起，标志着史诗模式下的小说已经面临濒危。这不仅仅是体裁的问题，我也不是在建议读者们蜂拥去写散文而放弃小说。我的观点是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，或者更普遍地，让位于感性的散文结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 17:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
散文在当代中国的兴起，意味着史诗类型小说的下坡。这不仅是题材问题，我也不是说建议读者们一股脑地去阅读散文作品而将小说抛诸脑后。我的意思是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，更笼统地说就是在让位于感性的散文式结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br />
<br />
关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，"在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失"（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得有疑问和过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。 在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得困难重重且过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:57, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br />
<br />
Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br />
<br />
普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br />
<br />
它的现代讽刺性就在于此，在梦想完美世界的同时，又深知完美的不可能。有趣的是，卢卡奇对小说的反讽性、自省性的洞察，让我们得以一窥这篇文章的状况。在中国现实主义小说中，可以肯定的是，从世俗现实中涌现出来的共产主义乌托邦的历史总体性是灵感的光辉象征，表面上与黑格尔的精神在国家中的实现有着的相似之处。但对共产主义乌托邦的最终胜利和全面解放社会的实现的信念，却被小说话语假定为规律性的、预设性的，因而具有现实性和必然性。因此，小说、史诗模式的小说的衰落，可以理解为宏大的马克思主义的历史叙事的衰落。相比之下，散文的兴起则预示着一种更为支离破碎、彼此分离和私人化的表意实践形式，这种形式正在一个堕落的现实世界的裂缝和缝隙中涌现。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br />
<br />
脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 "失控 "一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br />
<br />
For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br />
<br />
像许多其他文化领域一样，它已经商品化并进入市场，在大众传媒和娱乐业被包装成一个又一个项目。这种变化的社会语境对于理解散文作为当代中国的一种文学形式和文化表达媒介至关重要。但是，商品文化与散文，或者说散文写作和感受的方式之间的这种联系，并不是最近十年出现的一种全新现象。<br />
<br />
为了追溯这一历史联系，我们可以追溯到现代文学史的早期。张爱玲的散文及其对散文形式的反思，是散文与大众文化联姻的成功范例。黄妮可在这本书中的论文着眼于这段婚姻的某些方面，这在张爱玲的文章中有所体现。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 06:24, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br />
<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br />
<br />
The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br />
这种结合在当代作家王安忆的作品中有了新的表现，王安忆在一个更新的城市语境中写作，在很多方面与蒋介石相似。分析张爱玲对这篇文章的思考，有助于我们理解王的作品。张爱玲的观点使这篇文章在城市和消费文化中形成了清晰的轮廓。王安忆的散文，尤其是小说中的散文时刻，标志着这一以消费为导向的文体在新的历史条件下的回归。<br />
《张爱玲与都市背景下的散文》<br />
故事和散文作家张爱玲被认为是王安忆作品的来源之一。尽管张爱玲的小说以上海和香港为背景，融合了传统和现代主义风格，但她的作品形成了鲜明对比，是中国现代文学中“五四”启蒙和革命宏大叙事的一剂解药。<br />
卢卡奇在《小说理论》的序言11-23中唤起了黑格尔对艺术的这种观点。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 06:53, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child.<br />
<br />
她的故事津津乐道于无关紧要的小事、小躁动、小琐事、小焦虑，描写都市人生活中的随机事件。对都市小资的狭隘浪漫和个性''小资''的描写耐人寻味，是她的强项和魅力所在。散文式描写在狭窄拥挤的城市环境中的生活，不仅是她小说的特点，也构成了她散文的主要主题。她的散文在对应和照应她的小说的同时，她对散文写作的思考也起到了凸显中国现代文学中散文主义审美品质的作用。<br />
张爱玲的散文集《流言》（有时译为《写在沃尔特上》）是中国城市文化中出现的散文的一个引人注目的例子。 在散文集的开篇《童言无忌》一文中，她仿佛在散文中随意畅聊、异想天开、任性地宣泄压抑的感情，像一个无拘无束的孩子。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有多大关系，应该通过写一本流行的自传，放弃从自我描绘中获得永生的梦想。对一个作家来说，满足和拯救是写“关于自己的事情的点点滴滴”。如常所说，自我关注的问题包括金钱、衣着、饮食、重要人物及其怪异的下体，以及家庭关系。在这篇第一篇文章的几页里，我们有各种各样的主题，表达了人们对消费习惯、在城市中的生存、在日益分化的城市文化中的个人和社会关系的兴趣。纵观这篇论文集的目录，我们很难将这些文章的重点分类，只说它们是在写观点，在城市生活中玩弄感知。他们触及任何在脑海中闪过的东西，经过视线的东西，吸引感官的东西，任何在城市环境中的陈规的或常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:42, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br />
<br />
While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br />
<br />
为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br />
<br />
当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br />
<br />
虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br />
<br />
As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br />
<br />
Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br />
<br />
In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br />
<br />
消费者心态，城市文化以及职业性养家糊口的新角色：作家的兴起，突显了娱乐，魅力，品味，表演，魅力和诱惑力的价值，这些都是城市文化所固有的价值，并且它们对于 娱乐，印象和景象有着不错的需求。 在张爱玲昙花一现之后的几十年中，这种新兴的社会历史背景被占主导地位的政治意识形态和历史叙事所掩盖和边缘化。<br />
<br />
加州大学伯克利分校的安德鲁·琼斯（Andrew Jones）正在将张爱玲的论文集翻译成英文，并使用了“在水上的书写”一词。<br />
<br />
在他最近的著作《上海现代》中，leo教授怀有钦佩地追溯了张爱玲的著作以及她所沉浸的商业城市文化。请参见《张爱玲：堕落的浪漫》 267-303章。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br />
<br />
'''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感再现了。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br />
<br />
This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br />
<br />
这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br />
<br />
关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度：在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道；疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，这些人必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。来自不同的地方的他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:48, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br />
<br />
'''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br />
<br />
'''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br />
<br />
王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br />
<br />
Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br />
<br />
评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br />
评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br />
<br />
这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
“Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br />
<br />
“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br />
<br />
从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br />
<br />
The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br />
<br />
虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br />
<br />
本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 "区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
虽然阿多诺的评论是恰当的，符合张爱玲和王安忆对散文的思考，但阿多诺的哲学框架是不同的：散文反对西方哲学传统高高在上的概念暴政。 在中国的文学传统中，散文并没有如此明确地定义反对既定的东西。我试图用本文论证，散文被认为是目的论历史的启蒙运动和马克思主义范式及其文学对应物：革命现实主义小说。<br />
本文是一次试图打破概念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用了马克斯·本塞的话说，“这篇文章有别于一部专著：--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br />
<br />
The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br />
<br />
See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br />
<br />
Adorno, 3-23.<br />
散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br />
放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br />
参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br />
<br />
阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br />
<br />
探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br />
<br />
比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br />
<br />
进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission.<br />
<br />
老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于以文学写作推动社会变革。他在 "文革 "后一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。他的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的发声，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于文学写作以推动社会变革。"文革 "后，他在一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，它是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。叔叔的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的传声筒，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br />
<br />
The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br />
<br />
叔叔所体现的历史意识是为了在史诗般的写作方式中找到其对应的形式：写实小说。 在卢卡奇的意味上，叔叔对世界的总体观是史诗般的。这位年轻的叙述者非常准确地捕捉到了这个世界观：<br />
<br />
叔叔过去几十年个人经历和生活被政治所充斥，这使他能够将自己世界观牢牢地依托于现实和政治。 国家和政府围绕着他的全世界，并构成了人类活动的广阔背景，人们的行为方式只是社会生活的代表。对他来说，文化的概念听起来很抽象，十分空洞的，甚至认为艺术还应该发挥现实和政治作用。（214-215）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br />
叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
《叔叔的故事》寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。《叔叔的故事》早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，《叔叔的故事》也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br />
<br />
在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br />
<br />
生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
在他的环球旅行中，历史的物质被清空，而充满了零碎的、漫无边际的印象，关于叔叔的生活和写作都逐渐变成个人的、无关的、不连续的片段。他的作品开始呈现出散文式的品质，接近纯粹的影像或拟像，越来越接近年轻一代的作品。真正的人际关系“只是一种文学幻想”。(227)，他回应了年轻一代。在美学的庇护下，“叔叔不再激动或感动，对痛苦免疫。”悲剧的痛苦现在只是一个文学类别，“意识到这一点是叔叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”(225)。与这种随笔风格相对应的是叔叔生活方式的改变。他更喜欢那些他认为庸俗、低俗或司空见惯的事情;--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br />
<br />
The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments.<br />
<br />
<br />
他变得更加无精打采而又热情洋溢。他对女性以及性爱和征服产生了浓厚的兴趣。他沉迷于庸俗和琐碎的追求，对金钱和艳丽的异国情调的收藏品狂喜不已。简而言之，他从史诗般的小说家和有机知识分子的形象变成了中产阶级专业作家，他的偏爱形式是随笔，其生活方式具有自我满足的“随笔”性质。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《叔叔》的转变反映了文学从一种历史根基的媒介退缩到一种轻松、有趣的娱乐和戏剧表演的形式。正如中篇小说的结尾所暗示的那样，这种变化的问题在于它是自欺欺人的。尽管《叔叔》蓄意创造了一个美丽的茧，但由于被压抑者的归还，他的杀手之子最终还是入侵了历史。他的儿子体现了《叔叔》创造中所有的痛苦记忆和可耻的经历，不适合他小说中的史诗般的治疗方式，而对他空灵、透气、杂文主义的实验则表现出压抑。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br />
<br />
儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed.<br />
<br />
它是一种对以前的被控制意识形态的生活的解放，它现在变得更私人，更脱节和碎片化，更远离极权主义的社会和政治进程。然而，历史并不是像年轻的叙述者或叔叔自己在追赶时尚时想象的那样可操控的。中国的社会现实与人们所希望的散文式的嬉闹并不那么吻合。因此，散文作为一种文化形式，处于一种从历史的负担中解脱出来与可能回归压迫状态之间的张力之中。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
'''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br />
'''<br />
<br />
''Mary Scoggin''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br />
<br />
拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br />
<br />
玛丽·斯高格<br />
<br />
文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations.<br />
<br />
诗歌至少需要大声朗读，重复和品尝才能真正达到效果，而与诗歌不同的是，杂文在报纸的背面短暂地露面，读者边看边发出神秘笑声，叹息声或鼻息声，还没等读者找到座位坐下，就迅速将其扔掉。读者对道德和政治上具有挑衅性的“当下杂文”又爱又恨，而作者跨越式的书写杂文，并通过出版机构来建立大量互文性的对话。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br />
<br />
In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br />
<br />
杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br />
<br />
在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着"杂文"。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 "匕首和长矛 "流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，"杂文"[字面意思是 "杂文"，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 "中国性"的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br />
<br />
In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br />
<br />
鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br />
<br />
在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br />
<br />
在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br />
In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br />
至于称这一文体为现代中国“杂文”， 是因为其浓烈的中国特性。西方人理解起来，确实困难。因此杂文研究对他们来说也很难。美国作家赛珍珠曾说过：“这一文体称为“杂文”， 太过独特，这真的太难以理解了。这就是为什么只有中国人自己能评析“杂文”这一事物。（张华笔下的严修[除注释之外，其他所有部分为奚慕里翻译]）<br />
在这篇文章中，作为一个赫赫有名的作家与评论家，严修以一种相对直率的方式,明晰地表达出鲁迅蔑视以外国权威标准对散文体裁分名别类。然而严修也保留了类似“杂文”式，典型的轻松趣味风格。他进一步进行他的评述：--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br />
<br />
Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br />
但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br />
虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但我们不必担心这种外国人长期不承认杂文的情况。即使一个外国人产生了其研究杂文的心思，恐怕他们自己研究得身无分文，饿死也研究不出来什么。但中国人都很容易理解他们。如果他们不能保持中国读者对他们的欣赏和理解，这种做法就会失传。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因和意义，是值得认真研究和理论化的（同上）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然长期以来，外国人都不承认中国杂文，但我们也不必为此忧心忡忡。即使一个外国人突发奇想地要研究杂文，恐怕研究到身无分文，饥肠辘辘，他/她也研究不出什么东西，而我们中国人理解起杂文却很轻松。但如果中国读者不能理解或一直赏析杂文的话，那么其也将不复存在了。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因与意义就很值得认真地研究并理论化。（同上）。<br />
杂文晦涩难懂，但也是富于趣味的一种散文体裁。因此在免于破产的风险下，我真的建议大家勇敢地研究并对这一文化形成理论。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:55, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br />
<br />
So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br />
<br />
从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br />
<br />
Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br />
<br />
在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br />
下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br />
<br />
杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br />
''<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br />
So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br />
''<br />
<br />
<br />
一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br />
一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br />
<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
“Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸！”是一种显而易见对杂文的不着边际的评价，这种情况下支持课外的流派是下层知识分子，例如邵燕心，他本身是怀着悲痛的心从中国核心诗歌期刊《诗刊》辞职，并全身心将写杂文作为其正式职业。在看到某不知名的省级干部“呸呸呸”的不满评价，同时也感受到自己对这种令人大失所望的事所担负的责任，邵写下他所发现的，这位省级干部的确对党、民族以及人民写有挖苦、讽刺、非难的文章，就像“到处都在呸呸呸”一样，他进一步发出警告，这样的言论正传播一种绝望沮丧的氛围。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:54, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br />
<br />
The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br />
<br />
在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br />
<br />
A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br />
<br />
A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br />
<br />
例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br />
<br />
第三个层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 "文学与百姓生活"）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 "文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 "的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 "全民办报（出版）"的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br />
<br />
第三层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br />
<br />
In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br />
作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br />
<br />
作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了"耶利米德"的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br />
<br />
我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br />
三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br />
<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br />
<br />
沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br />
1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
想到这一点，眼泪就掉了，开心的笑声无法表达出来。” -我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的任何收藏中都没有。<br />
<br />
在引述的“幸运的救援”一词中，邵衍祥对唐复安禄山叛乱期间杜甫的逃亡的暗示与之相似但更为深刻的脉络。 邵军在这篇文章中的总体结构是一个反复出现的周期性寓言，它与日本人，国民党和共产主义者在最后一个人的严厉谴责中并驾齐驱，因为只有一支侵略军干扰了普通中国人民的生活。 人民交警也在这个周期中取代了他们的位置，愚蠢地提醒我们，我们仍然处在“杂文”领域。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 05:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br />
<br />
仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br />
<br />
Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br />
<br />
在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br />
<br />
实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br />
<br />
She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br />
It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br />
<br />
因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br />
这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因为这篇文章写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但他用北京东站谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"（奈格乐）了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，总编辑的两位客人突然说道，“他们在干什么！？”但她仍然保持着平静的样子，拒绝把这次警方的访问解释为一种邪恶的姿态。<br />
这只是手稿，他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在看书，有两个，我真的不知道，我想他们也喜欢看吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:14, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br />
<br />
In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br />
<br />
当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合"。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 "叛乱 "。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。" 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、"今天 "和不顾一切的 "寸土寸金 "联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br />
<br />
It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br />
<br />
一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br />
那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 "丑陋 "的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，"骡子 "文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''一个更大的趋势：用混乱的声音揭示丑陋的真相'''<br />
这几乎是一个定义的问题，那么，不和谐的、麻烦的音调是特点，即使是最美丽的杂文也如此。我在这里没有说明“丑陋的”杂文，但它们确确实实存在，而且数量繁多。许多杂文充斥着一种说教、迂腐的语气，这对中国和外国读者来说有时是相当令人讨厌的。然而，与中国文学中较大的一类散文一样，杂文仍然是中国报纸文学副刊的主要内容，许多著名作家在后来的职业生涯中都转向写杂文。在当代历史上，“骡子”类型的杂文也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了其谦卑的姿态（see Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br />
<br />
''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.)<br />
<br />
这种类型吸引了杰出的作家，并引起了中国读者的极大关注？我认为答案在于中国文学史的机械性假设。要审视这一问题，我们需要抛开特定的杂文，从当代中国批评家的全球化视角审视中国文学。<br />
“杂文”作为一个范畴，给汉语和非汉语的分类都带来了问题，但中西方对“杂文”的处理有着明显的分歧。“杂文”是近年来国外华文文学研究中一个被忽视的课题，但也有少数例外（阿奇恩中国现代文学随笔会议是一个罕见的例外，有几篇论文专门讨论了扎文）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 13:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br />
尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie "bad literature" directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature.<br />
<br />
这些对中国例外论的主张也许有些夸大其词。但我认为，在我所说的语调中心使命的推动下，这一体裁产生了一些明显的张力和做法，它们成为了国际上对中国文化其他方面研究的绊脚石。<br />
在中国文学研究的这些障碍中，最主要的是我所说的“糟糕文学”抱怨。[最近对这一投诉的肯定，见胡志德1990，麦独,1997，林克，2000，美国汉学早期的观点将“糟糕文学”与政治暴政直接联系在一起。]总结几条截然不同的论据，我们的建议是，尽管中国文学的所有希望都是一种自然诗意的语言，有着丰富、受人尊敬和保存完好的传统，具有汉字和语言结构的独特视觉和语法优势，而且还具有专门的文学作品“军队”，用现代汉语比喻制度中有组织、有支持的作家，中国现代文学未能产生真正伟大的文学作品。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br />
<br />
1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br />
<br />
2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br />
<br />
3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br />
<br />
4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br />
<br />
显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在" 杂文"中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices.<br />
<br />
这种坏文学不仅仅只是暴政或者夸张修辞之下的残缺产物，也不只是一种业余文学的表达或者一种挣扎着现代化的文化的表现。取而代之的是，它们被认为是近乎非自愿的标记，不是美感，而是我们必须呼吁缺少一个更好的词“真相”，这是通过对缺点和问题的严格审查而发现的，再次是由于缺乏 更好的词是“文化”。 在当代中国理论体系中或多或少采用了高度现代意识形态的文化，反对报纸社论和文学短篇小说以及现代写作实践的其他典型流派的中性现代性。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:42, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些“低沉”的语调并不仅仅是专制或夸张造成的缺陷或错误，也不仅仅是一种业余文学的表达或者一种文化试图现代化的表现。相反，他们被认为几乎是无意识的标记，不是关于美，而是我们将不得不呼吁的，缺少一个更好的词——“真相”，这是通过对缺点和问题的批判性研究揭示的，这些问题似乎源于，同样缺乏一个更好的词——“文化”。 在当代中国理论体系中或多或少采用了高度现代意识形态的文化，反对报纸社论和文学短篇小说以及现代写作实践的其他典型流派的中性现代性。<br />
--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:18, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br />
<br />
Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br />
<br />
文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br />
<br />
在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
……而中国文化对以往在中国文学中应用过的体裁有这颠覆性的影响。<br />
考察语气在更广泛的中国文化语境中揭示了一些特殊的方式，为了与真理的权威进行交流，社会交换、引用和其他一些应使用朴实的（中性的、现代的）词语的普通的义务中，必须与典型的汉语语调相交。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 06:01, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br />
<br />
It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85).<br />
<br />
''杂文''正是在这个问题上经常进行评论。 蓝翎是 "新调 "杂文理论的主要反对者，通过写杂文 "丑陋的真相 "，提出了富有争议评论。 在一篇文章中，他问道，为什么当一个 "正直而受人尊敬的老作家 "宣布他现在打算说/写 "真理 "时，人们会如此大惊小怪，(他指的是巴金，见''随感录'')，蓝翎以自己的经验证明了确立真理的困难。<br />
<br />
那是几十年前，他们 "斗争 "我，说我是 "反动派"。我回答说："我根本不是反动的，事实上，我是行动的"。 他们说："你又在狡辩了，你在撒谎，谁听说过'行动派'这种东西？" ......但如果我说的是假话，那当然就意味着他们说的是真的，这样我的政治标签就完成了。"反动派" 几十年后，这个结论被推翻和纠正了，所以现在我说的话成了真理。 （兰，85）。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br />
<br />
这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，"无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧"。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 "劣质文学 "的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
''Tone in Historical Context''<br />
<br />
As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry.<br />
<br />
历史背景下的音调<br />
<br />
为了证明这是情态修辞启发了扎文这一体裁的产生，我在这篇文章的结尾简要介绍了音调在历史中的表现。音调的概念（也是人们讨论的“调”，“音”，“韵”）最终源于音乐中的文字，这很关键，而且这也经常是中文潜台词的一部分。即使它作为一个隐喻，在应用于中文书写时，它必须消除声音的声学品质，但语气仍与声音中或类似声音的事物保持联系，强调客观，口头，非正式和情感方面的品质，而这并不是声音的一部分。理性的阐释过程，这就是杂文的“诗”。音调在围绕和组成写作的众多社交活动中发挥着作用。它出现在音乐人物中，成为最有影响力的文学和诗歌理论中的中心隐喻。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:32, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br />
<br />
The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br />
<br />
例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br />
<br />
情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 "音"。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_trans&diff=10804220201207 trans2020-12-07T01:07:12Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The story plays with the analogy of zhang and mu. By infusing them into an imaginary “curtain,” the framed narrative engenders dialogic interplay between the narrator and the bridegroom, between the bride and the spectator, and between the public and private spaces. Zhang and mu mean different things, though they converge in the compound zhangmu. Traditionally, the word zhang denoted a canopy hung around a bed and was used to isolate an inner space in bedroom, so it can hardly be identical with the meaning of curtain. However, indirectly, it reached to the sense of “curtain” through a translation of Jerrold D. William’s (1803-57) Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, a fiction of early nineteenth-century England. In 1915 Liu Bannong translated the title into “Zhangzhong shuofa” and published it in Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie.[ Liu Bannong, “Zhangzhong shuofa,” Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie, vol. 2, no.3 (March, 1915). Zhou should (June, 1922).]<br />
<br />
这个故事与“帐”和“幕”的比喻类似。通过将他们注入想象中的“窗帘”,框架化的叙事手法在叙述者和新郎之间，新娘与观众之间，以及大众与私密空间之间引发了交流互动。帐和幕有不同的含义，尽管两者可以组成帐幕这个词。“帐”这个字从传统意义上来说是表示悬垂在床边的罩篷，以及被用来隔离出卧室的内部空间，因此“帐”与“窗帘”的意思是不同的。然而，在杰罗德·威廉姆斯在19世纪初期创作的一本小说，《考德尔太太的帷幕演讲》的译文中，“帐”有了接近“窗帘”的感觉。1915年，刘半农将标题译为《帐中说法》，并在中华小说界发表。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:46, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The “curtain lectures” refer to Mrs. Caudle’s poignant complaints and derision at her husband, mixed with familial trivialities and comic effects. <br />
<br />
However, the overlap of zhang and mu was crucially related to a widely circulated myth about the Chinese origins of cinema, which was perhaps invented by Zhou himself. When Western-style movie theaters began to appear in late-1900s Shanghai, he was one of the earliest moviegoers. Like other Chinese at his time he also regarded film as a kind of “shadow play” (yingxi), meaning the performance on a screen. According to Zhou, the origins of “shadow play” can be found in the famous story in the Han Dynasty (206-24, B.C.), which tells of the Emperor Wu watching lady Li, dancing and singing, through a semi-transparent curtain.<br />
<br />
“窗帘讲话”指的是考德尔夫人对于丈夫的尖酸抱怨和嘲弄，具有家庭琐事的特点和喜剧效果。<br />
然而，帐和幕的重叠之处与广泛流传的中国影院起源的神话故事具有关键的联系,这神话故事很可能是周瘦鹃自己编造的。20世纪90年代后期，西方式的电影院开始在上海出现，周瘦鹃是最早一批常客之一。与同时代的其他中国人一样，他将电影看成一种“皮影戏”（影戏），意为屏幕上的表演。周瘦鹃认为“皮影戏”的起源可以追溯到汉朝（公元206-24年）最著名的故事中，故事讲述了武皇帝通过一个半透明的帘子看李姓女子唱歌跳舞。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:55, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
As the anecdote goes, to console his loss of the favorite lady, a sorcerer made a curtained room and asked the emperor to stay at a distance. In the night, called by the sorcerer, the spirit appears behind the curtain, amidst the candle-light, to perform as if she is alive.[ Zhou Shoujuan, “Tan yingxi” (On shadow play), in Ziluilan ji (Collections of violet) (Shanghai: Dadong shuju, 1922) 13-14. Its earlier version “Yingxi hua” appeared in the Free Talk (Ziyou tan), the literary page in Shenbao (June 20, 1919): 15.] Notwithstanding the historical merit of Zhou’s interpretation, what is significant here is that he reads history with a cinematic imagination, by which the terminology in everyday life changes - as occurred here the meaning of zhang (curtain) is substituted by that of mu (screen). <br />
<br />
In the mid-1910s Saturday and The Pastime (Youxi zazhi) magazines often appeared Zhou’s “film fiction” (yinxi xiaoshuo) - his accounts of what he had seen in the movie theaters.<br />
<br />
正如轶闻流传的那样，为了抚慰他痛失挚爱，一位巫师把一个房间装上帘子，要求皇帝保持一定距离。夜幕降临后，在巫师的召唤下，灵魂出现在窗帘后，在烛光中晃动，仿佛她还活着。[周瘦鹃，“谈影戏”，《紫罗兰集》(上海: 大东书局, 1922) 13-14。 它的早期版本“影戏话”出现在《申报》(1919年6月20日): 15的文学专栏《自由谈》中] 尽管周瘦鹃的诠释具有历史意义，但此处的重要意义在于他以电影般的想象力来理解历史，通过这种想象力，日常生活中的专门用语发生了变化——在这里，“帐”的含义被“幕”替代。<br />
<br />
20世纪10年代中期，《礼拜六》和《游戏杂志》经常刊登周瘦鹃的“影戏小说”——即他对自己在影院观看过的影片叙述。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 09:21, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
By the time he wrote this love confession, Zhou published a novella The Intimate Beauty (Hongyan zhiji), in which the hero recalls his lover on the “screen memory”: after he closes his eyes, he sees her beautiful image on a “snow-white screen” (xuebai de bumu) and hears her delicate voice; when he opens his eyes, they vanish and yet leaves a three-inch photograph in his heart.[ Zhou Shoujuan. Hongyan zhiji (Zhonghua tushuguan, 1917) 64.] However, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” has no description of watching film, yet the narrative itself is framed by the curtain; what was shown on the “screen” was verbalized and the text was visualized. With both meanings of zhang and mu, the “curtain” can be changed into a “screen,” onto which is projected the inner space of a wedding chamber in which the author makes his confession.<br />
在他写这篇爱情告白的时候，周出版了中篇小说《亲密之美》(《红颜之记》)，在这部小说中，主人公在“屏幕记忆”中回忆起了他的爱人:他闭上眼睛，在“雪白的屏幕”上看到了她美丽的形象，听到了她柔美的声音;当他睁开眼睛时，它们消失了，却在他的心里留下了一张三英寸的照片。(周秀娟《红颜智记》(中华图舒观1917)。然而，《九花帘幕》并没有对看电影的描述，叙事本身却被帘幕框住了;“屏幕”上显示的是语言，文字是可视化的。“窗帘”可以变成“屏风”，在“屏风”上投射出婚房的内部空间，作者在这里坦白。<br />
<br />
写下这篇爱情告白时，周寿娟已出版了一篇小说《亲密的美人》(《鸿雁集》)，男主人公以 "屏风记忆 "的方式回忆爱人：闭上眼睛后，在 "雪白的屏风"上看到了她的美丽形象，听到了她的娇声；睁开眼睛时，这些形象消失了，却在心里留下了一张三寸照片。 [ 周寿娟.鸿雁志集（中华图画馆，1917）64.]然而，《九花帘里》没有看电影的描写，但叙事本身却被帘子框住了，"屏风 "上显示的东西被口头化了，文字也被视觉化了。有了 "张 "和 "亩 "两个意思，"幕 "就可以变成 "屏"，在 "屏 "上投射出作者告白的婚房内部空间。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:37, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was visually imagined and represented in terms of the spaces divided into the inside and the outside, with the beholder within the curtain and the imagined beholders without. When Zhou fulfills his promise to his friends that he will show them his “love talk” in the Pictorial Story magazine, he makes a written tableau in Diderot’s sense, in which the beholder is absent and yet always implied.[ Jay Caplan. Framed Narratives: Diderot’s Genealogy of the Beholder (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 16. ] Here, we refer to the notion of “beholder” not only because of the visual nature of Zhou’s fiction, but also because it helps my imposition of the complex “subjectivity” in this paper.<br />
《九朵花的窗帘》以外部空间和内部空间的划分给人们视觉上的想象与呈现，旁观者在窗帘内，而想象中的旁观者则在窗帘外。周在兑现对其朋友承诺说他将会在《画报故事》杂志中给他们展示“爱情谈话”时，就按照狄德罗的感觉画了一幅画，在这幅画里没有旁观者，但却总是暗含其中。[杰伊·卡普兰。边框叙事：狄德罗的《旁观者的家谱》（明尼阿波利斯：明尼苏达大学出版社，1985年）16。]我们在这里提到周的小说中“旁观者”的概念，不仅仅是因为其视觉特点，也是因为它加深了我对这篇文章复杂的“主观性”的理解。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
At this juncture, if we look beyond this story merely as a signal of style change in Zhou’s love story from the tragic to comical, we might be curious at the positivity of the male voice as well as the brightness of the private space. In view of the erotic-sentimental tradition of the male gaze in private space, what does this love talk mean historically? Not only does it relate to the transformation of gender roles as well as the legitimacy of the private space in Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
This transformation occurred when this male gaze is empowered ideologically and technologically. Ideologically, it is imbued with the Republican ideal of nationhood and selfhood; technologically, it is, in this case, facilitated by the structural optical perception linked to the modern inventions such as photography and cinema. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
While depicting a tableau by freezing a moment in the past, Diderot disturbs his narrative by arranging the beholder as a part of the tableau. As Jay Caplan interpreted, the beholder is presented for the “psychological reason”: he functions as compensation to the loss which the family suffers as portrayed in the tableau.[ Ibid., 20-37.] In Zhou’s case, the beholder is called for the moral reason as his presence is neutralized to legitimize his love discourse in the private space. Especially the term qinghua “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” can be traced back to his short story published in 1913. It describes a young couple meeting and then whispering at a public place, unaware of someone who takes a snapshot of their intimate scene.[ Zhou Shoujuan. “Qinghua” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).]<br />
<br />
在通过暂停过去某个时刻来描绘一个场景时，狄德罗把旁观者设为场景的一部分，打乱了他的叙述。正如杰伊·卡普兰所解释的那样，旁观者的设定主要是出于“心理原因”，即他可以弥补场景中该家庭所遭受的损失。[ 同上, 20-37.] 在周廋鹃看来，旁观者的出现是出于道德原因，因为为使他的爱情故事在私人空间合法化，他的存在被中和了。特别是《九花帘幕》中情话一词，可以追溯到他1913年出版的短篇小说。该小说描述了一对年轻夫妇的会面，然后在公共场合窃窃私语，却没有意识到有人拍摄了他们的亲密场景。[ 周廋鹃. “情话” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).]<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
It reads like a joke, yet this reportage intriguingly justifies the privacy in the public space that is a controversy of the time. The beholder plays roles of witness, voyeurist, and more importantly, sympathizer. In portraying the photographic evidence with the story of the beholder, Zhou also becomes a sympathetic beholder. <br />
<br />
The dialogic characteristic of this love discourse lies not only in the consumerism of literary pleasure as the core of the Butterfly periodical culture, but also in the collective ethos of Butterfly community. In explicating how a bourgeois “love community” is born from the literature of intimate sphere in eighteenth-century England, Habermas says: “Subjectivity, as the innermost core of the private, was always already oriented to an audience.”[ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Trans. Thomas Burger with the Assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge and Mass.: The MIT Press, 1991) 49. ]<br />
<br />
<br />
这篇报道读起来像个笑话，但它为当时的一个争议，即公共空间的隐私进行了有趣的辩护。旁观者扮演着目击者，窥阴者，更重要的是，同情者的角色。在用旁观者的故事来描绘照片证据的过程中，周瘦鹃也成了一个有同情心的旁观者。<br />
<br />
这种情话的对话性，不仅体现在以文学享乐消费主义为核心的享乐时代文化中，还体现在享乐社会的集体精神中。哈贝马斯在阐述十八世纪英国亲密领域文学如何诞生一个资产阶级“爱情共同体”时指出:“主体性作为私人领域最深处的核心，一直是面向受众的。”[尤尔根·哈贝马斯, 《公共领域的结构转型:对资产阶级社会范畴的探究》. 托马斯·伯格, 弗雷德里克·劳伦斯协助 (剑桥, 马萨诸塞州.: 麻省理工学院出版社，1991)49. ]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 02:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Zhou’s pillow talk is more than a playful response to his friends’ voyeurist curiosity, it is fulfilled as a promise of love discourse. It might embody that “the ideas of freedom, love, and cultivation of the person that grew out of the experiences of the conjugal family’s private sphere were surely more than just ideology.”[ Ibid., 48. ]<br />
<br />
As the pillow talk unfolds, a complex subjectivity emerges. Against its ideological and technological backdrop, it is rhetorically and aesthetically embodied by a double voice, the poetics of persuasion and linguistic theatricality. The latter part of the story talks more about his family history. “When I was six years old, I became an orphan.” With this pathological tone, Zhou narrates how his father dies at that time and how his widowed mother single-handedly rears up four children by her hard work as a seamstress.<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他说给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:31, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明,男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大的往事。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:24, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
This family story is particularly heart-rending, yet it is more than that. He goes on, “When my father died, it happened in the year of 1900. The capital Beijing was totally in chaos, and thus, unexpectedly, the familial disaster and national humiliation fell on a boy of six years old.” A sense of tragic sublimation is effectively rendered as the boy is depicted as both victim and victor in these historical disasters, owing much to the rhetoric that makes the familial and national disasters “happen” to meet, and “thus” they “both” fall on the boy. The sentences sound as if it happened simultaneously when his father died and Beijing fell, and this narration enormously affects the reader. <br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
However, strictly speaking, there is some slippage between fact and fiction: according to Zhou’s chronicle, his father died 22 days after the fall of Beijing.[ Wang Zhiyi, ed., Zhou Shoujaun yanjiu zhiliao (Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1993) 20.] The dramatic simultaneity not merely refers the narrative strategy mixed with sentimentalism and patriotism, it reflects his own trauma as projected onto the screen memory of his childhood. Compared with other versions about his father’s death, this expression is most theatrical. <br />
<br />
Zhou’s childhood memory stores the collective traumatic experiences. The 1900 national catastrophe - the Boxers Uprising and the European Allies’ invasion in Beijing - becomes the emblem of national shame that had deeply imprinted on the Chinese minds. By such theatrical representation of his screen memory, Zhou’s love talk not merely appeals to his bride, the wedding chamber itself is transformed into a public space.<br />
<br />
然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，北京沦陷22天后，其父便亡，[王智毅，《研究资料研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧性的巧合不仅指向与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义，欧洲列强入侵北京，国家屈辱深深植根在中国人心中。周瘦鹃戏剧性展现其屏幕记忆，表明其甜言蜜语不仅仅说给他的新娘子听，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，其父在北京沦陷22天后逝世。[王智毅，《周瘦鹃研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧的同时性不仅指与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义和欧洲列强入侵北京这两大屈辱，深深植根在中国人心中。通过这种戏剧性的屏幕记忆表达，周瘦鹃的甜言蜜语不仅吸引了他的新娘，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Now the narrator is more aware of the presence of the public beholders. Aiming more at arousing collective pathos there inserts the scenario of his father’s death, which is also an intense moment for the author to test his rhetoric of theatricality. “When my father was dying, he was like a madman. Suddenly he jumped down from the bed and rushed out, raising his head toward heaven and shouting at the top of his lung, ‘My three sons, be heroes, join the army and fight!’ After these words, he returned to the bed and soon stopped breathing.”<br />
<br />
现在，叙述者更加意识到了公众旁观者的存在。 插入父亲去世的情景更多地是为了激起集体的悲痛，这也是作者检验自己的戏剧性描写能力的一个关键点。 “当我父亲去世时，他就像一个疯子。他突然从床上跳下来，冲了出去，抬起头向着天堂，高喊着说：“我的三个儿子，成为英雄吧，去参军作战！”说完这些话之后，他回到了床上，很快停止了呼吸。”--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
现在叙述者更加意识到公众旁观者的存在。插入他父亲死亡的场景，更多的是为了唤起集体的悲怆，这也是作者检验其戏剧性修辞的一个紧张时刻。“我父亲快死的时候就像是个疯子。他突然从床上跳下来，冲了出去，抬头望天，声嘶力竭地喊道:“我的三个儿子，要成为英雄，参军作战！”说完这些话，他回到床上，很快停止了呼吸。”--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
Permeated in the narrative of his family history are the characteristics of theatrical rhetoric: The period of his childhood is frozen, and his voice pretends to be childish; heavily emotionally charged words such as “tears,” “sorrow,” “bitter” are frequently appear between lines. Ordinary episodes are intensely represented with emphasis on the theatrical manners, gestures to deliver emotions at the highest pitch. The sentiments attached to the episodes tend to be collectively identified, such as his father’s death linked to the national calamity. There is excessive use of the adverbs to accumulate the force of persuasion and theatrical effect. No less noticeable is the role played by the narrator himself, who seems never hesitant to use the rhetoric of excess.<br />
<br />
在他的家族史叙事中渗透着戏剧修辞的特点:他的童年时期毫无生趣，声音假装稚嫩；字里行间经常出现“眼泪”、“悲伤”、“痛苦”等充满感情色彩的词语。普通的情节通过戏剧性的方式，传递情感的手势以及高昂的音调得以强烈地表现出来。与这些事件相关的情感往往是为集体认同的，比如他父亲的死与国家灾难有关。副词的过度使用是为了增强说服力和戏剧效果。同样引人注目的是叙述者自己扮演的角色，他似乎会毫不犹豫地过度使用修辞。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他的家族史叙述中充斥着戏剧性修辞的特征：他的童年时期很冷清，声音故作幼稚。 字里行间行间经常出现一些带有强烈情感的词，例如“眼泪”，“悲伤”，“苦涩”。 普通的情节以戏剧性的方式表现出来，强调最高音调传递情感的手势。 这些情节所附带的情感往往会为集体识别，例如父亲因国家大祸而去世。 过多使用副词来增强说服力和戏剧效果。 叙述者本人扮演的角色同样引人注目，他似乎会毫不犹豫地过度使用修辞。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Perhaps no modern readers would feel comfortable at the author’s praise of his mother for her traditional virtue; she twice cuts off a piece of flesh from her arm and cooks it as a medicine for her ill mother and husband. “From now on, we should remember what she did and do our best to be filial to her. We should erect, in our hearts, a stele for her filial piety, and a monument for her widowhood; by this means we can make her late life a happy one.” When he repeats this to his bride as a family legend and spiritual heritage, the use of rituals to enhance his language performativity nonetheless turn the persuasion into the grotesque. But we need to be cautious at the accusation of Zhou’s promotion of the “feudal rites” (fengjian lijiao), for the rituals are only used as symbolic value serving the new social structure and ideology in the early Republican era.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
According to the author’s love gospel, love must be mutual; this idea is embodied here through the narrative process itself: the act of telling the bride about his past as a token of trust aims to ask her to understand and trust him. While informing her of his intellectual paths in order to invite her to embrace his spiritual world, the pillow talk reveals its cultural meaning. Among other things, the story reveals himself as a human being who is promising yet ordinary, enduring yet fragile, and at the same time his family economy as unstable as unpredictable, indicating that they live in a hard time. It means that while sharing his bitter past and hopeful future, she must take up her duty and responsibility for him and his family.<br />
<br />
根据作者的爱情信条，爱情必须是相互的。这个观念也体现在作品的叙述过程中：新郎把自己的过往告诉了新娘，代表自己信任新娘，想要新娘理解并信任他。为了邀请她信奉他的精神世界，他告诉了她自己的智慧之路，同时这段枕边细语也反映出背后的文化内涵。在其他方面，这个故事也揭示了他是一个充满希望却又普通平凡，忍耐力强却又十分脆弱的人，同时，他的家庭经济难以预测，并不稳定，这也表明他们生活在一个艰难的时期。整个故事意味着：新郎分享了自己艰苦的过去，表达了对未来的希望，新娘就必须肩负起责任，对丈夫和家庭负责。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
根据作者的爱情信条，爱情必须是相互的。这个观点可以通过叙述过程本身体现出来：新郎把自己的过往告诉了新娘，代表自己信任新娘，想要新娘理解并信任他。为了邀请她进入自己的精神世界，新郎告诉了她自己的智慧之路，同时这段枕边细语也反映出背后的文化内涵。在其他方面，这个故事也揭示了他是一个充满希望却又普通平凡，忍耐力强却又十分脆弱的人，同时，他的家庭经济难以预测，并不稳定，这也表明他们生活在一个艰难的时期。这意味着新郎在分享他艰苦的过去和憧憬充满希望的未来的同时，新娘必须承担起对新郎和他的家庭的责任。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Zhou’s rhetoric of persuasion also implies that the bride is also at the center of a nuclear family, who must be subject to the new ethics. As the narrator further describes how he becomes a nationally famous novelist, due to his talent, diligence and proliferation in the “time of fiction in its full swing.” His jubilant voice echoes that of the beginning of the story while talking about how his family economy is drastically improved and afterwards the Zhous moves from the shabby old city area to the decent French concession. The narrator continues: “Ah, my phoenix lady, I have fully told you about my past. Having heard of this, you can understand what I have achieved so far is due to my bloody struggles with the hardships and difficulties, not to mention my mother who experienced as harder as thousands times than mine.”<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的说服性演讲也暗示了新娘在核心家庭中的中心地位，且新娘必须要遵守新的道德准则。正如叙述者在进一步叙述时说，自己成为一名享誉全国的小说家是因为自身的天赋、勤奋和在这个“小说的全盛时代”的有效推广。他兴奋的语调回应着故事开头关于他家里是如何富起来以及之后他从这个褴褛的旧城市搬到体面的法租界的叙述。叙述者继续说道：“哦，我的凤凰女神，我已将我的过去完完整整地告诉了你。听了这些，你就能明白，到今天为止我所取得的成就都是因为我面对困难进行的艰苦奋斗，更不用说我母亲，她所经历的比我要难一千倍。”--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:51, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃说服性的修辞也正暗示出新娘在核心家庭中的中心地位，而且新娘必须遵循新道德。正如叙述者一步步描述的那样：他凭借着自身的天赋和勤奋，借助“小说全盛时代”的发展契机，成为了一名享誉全国的小说家。故事开始时，他谈到自己的家庭是如何快速致富，之后又从破旧的老城搬到像样的法租界，兴奋的语调在空中回荡。叙述者继续谈到：“哦，我的凤凰女神，我已经把我的过往全部告诉你了。听完后，你就能明白我现在的成就都源于自己与困难艰苦奋斗，更别提我那比我经历了千倍困难的母亲了。”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The sentimental imploration conveys the bourgeois ethics no less than a “modern apocalypse”: this is a hard time yet it is promising and fair: everyone can get what he deserves by God’s gift as well as hard work. <br />
<br />
Inscribed with such allegorized trauma, the pillow talk implies a fatal bond between the individual, family and country, and thence elicits the “community of love.” Under the persuasion she is more than a wife and a lover - she is treated at the same time as a citizen. By the device of double curtain stated above, the narrative space is imbued with the authorial anxiety before the private and public beholders, indicating that the private realm by no means becomes autonomous without being identified with peoplehood and nationhood.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A Republican subjectivity is embodied in this domestic space by a speech act of persuasion, and it is the sentimentalism that naturalizes all social relations, blurring the private and public boundaries, and it ultimately functions in identifying them with the nationhood. In a sense, this peculiar love talk using the first person genre amalgamates diary, love-letter, autobiography and confession and displays a particular revelation of the community of love.<br />
<br />
Although the latter half of this monologue is basically dominated by historical references, Zhou’s strategy of using stylistic conventions such as verbal ornaments or rhythmic parallelism shifts to an appeal to cultural convention, such as ritual and tradition. Tradition is used as both value and form. Like the scars left on the mother’s arms, ritual is infused into the narrative to such an extent that the procedure of writing is culturally encoded. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Compared to the characteristic of pursuing modern fashion in the first half of the story, here Zhou reveals more of his cultural conservatism. Rooted in the traditional “Teaching of Affection,” his love discourse aims at solving complex problems in a modern society; what separates Zhou from his contemporaries is that he does not intend to make his philosophy of love a perfect, unified one. In the “community of love” lies a paradox. Habermas says: “The jeopardy into which the idea of the community of love was thereby put, up to our own day, occupied the literature as the conflict between marriage for love and marriage for reason, that is, for economic and social considerations.”[Habermas, 47.]<br />
<br />
与故事的上半部分追求现代时尚相比，这里体现的更多是周瘦鹃的文化保守理念。 他的爱情话语植根于传统的“情感教学”中，旨在解决现代社会中的复杂问题。 与同时代作者不同的是，周瘦鹃无意让自己的爱情哲学完美无缺、完全统一。 因为在“爱的共同体”中存在一个悖论。 正如哈贝马斯所说：“直到今天，爱的共同体带来的风险还一直给文学界造成着困扰，因为在这其中一直存在一个矛盾，那便是因爱而婚，还是因理（经济和社会考量）而婚。”[Habermas, 47.]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
As shown by Zhou’s own love story, he never forgot his first lover named “Violet,” and thus we come to realize that behind this pillow talk is the rueful truth: for him this is a “marriage for reason,” not a “marriage for love.” As he says to his bride, since he failed in the first love, he never had intention of making a family, and he married her in order to make his mother happy. Probably this loving experiment with baihua is a compromise for better communicating with the bride who is almost illiterate.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay'''<br />
<br />
Nicole Huang<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In her preface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meanings of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure-it should be like words written on water, or 'flowing words,' as 'liuyan' would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of 'rumors' or 'gossip'-a second literal meaning of the word 'liuyan'-flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年出版的《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层含义：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”的内涵，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年在日本侵占的上海出版的散文集《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层隐喻：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，或者说流言的字面意义“飘走的话语”，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”或“绯闻”的内涵——流言的第二个字面意义——自由自在地四处漂流，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，在1994被年日本占领的上海出版的《流言》的标题是来自于英语谚语“written on the water”。她还阐述了该隐喻背后的深层含义：她不希望自己的作品像水一样流过即逝，或者就像“流言”的字面意思一样，短暂的存在最终消逝；但是她希望他的作品可以像“谣言”一样-另一个“流言”的字面意思，可以迅速传开，被大众所知。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Chang's use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang's long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
<br />
张爱玲的自反性语言开辟了一个新的途径，使得好奇的读者或者评论家都可以仔细的观察到整个创作性作品的形成过程。因而一个极度具有创造性思维的女性作家第一次像一篇文章一样被解码。张爱玲极具特点的标题创造体现了她努力的在不同的写作体裁边缘尝试，正因如此，形成了批判性/学术性和质疑性的个人文章的区别。此处她的写作背后的命名机制不仅只是双关那么简单。这个标题不仅展现了一个新的写作风格，同时也顺势的表达了再创造的文学形式的体裁风格。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of 'gossip' or leisurely talks, Chang's naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer's commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation. <br />
<br />
I argue that Chang's experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is channeled into her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay. The choice of the essay form is central to Chang's aesthetic vision.<br />
<br />
尽管言语被描述为像流淌着的水，而杂文类型却被比作“闲话”或悠闲谈话的流畅构造，但张爱玲在这里对自己写作的命名不仅提供了对文学写作实践的评论。 更重要的是，应将文体的重命名理解为女作家对中国近代历史上特定时期的文化生产状况的评论，其特征是战争和占领引起的巨大动荡和破坏。<br />
<br />
我认为张爱玲的时间，空间和上海被占领这样的特殊历史环境的经验被用在她重新定义现代论文的通用身份的尝试中。 论文形式的选择对于张爱玲的审美观至关重要。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 08:46, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然文字被描述为像流动的水，散文体裁被比作“闲谈”或闲谈的流畅结构，但张爱玲在这里为自己的写作命名，这不仅仅是对文学创作实践的评论。更重要的是，散文体裁的更名应该理解为中国近代史上对一个特定时期的文化生产状况的评论，这一时期是以战争和占领造成的巨大动荡和混乱为特征的。<br />
<br />
余以为张爱玲对上海被占领的时间、空间和特定的历史环境的体验，是她尝试重新定义现代散文的共性特征。散文形式的选择是张氏美学视野的核心。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:05, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然用词像流水一样流畅，这种散文体裁可与“流言蜚语”或闲散的言语的流畅结构相比，但是张对她的作品的命名不仅仅展现了对文学创作实践的点评，更重要的是，这应该被理解为女性作家对中国现代史中某个特定时期的文化生产状况的评述，而这个时期，受战争及外国侵略的影响，是颠覆且破碎的。<br />
<br />
我认为张在时间、空间及上海被占领后的历史背景上的体验促成她尝试去重新定义现代散文的一般特性。散文形式的选择是张的美学观的核心。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
The writer's self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. The essay is made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenges the literary conventions, searches for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promotes herself as an important cultural figure. <br />
<br />
The modern essay also serves to contribute concrete forms to a life that appears void of any structure; in other words, Eileen Chang uses the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one's imagination and fantasy can anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. <br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
My paper highlights two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang's essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness. I argue that the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for the woman writer in her entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, a woman writer as an individual can become a concrete historical subject within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化的两个方面的生活：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚作为一种重要的物质意识形式的话语。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个无止境的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化的试验场。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化生活的两个方面：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚话语作为一种重要的物质意识形式。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更广泛的社会领域之间边界不稳定和持续变化的试验场所。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:46, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In her perface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meaning of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure – it should be like words written on water, or ‘flowing words,’ as ‘liuyan’ would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of ‘rumors’ or ‘gossip’ – a second literal meaning of the word ‘liuyan’ – flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.[ See Chang, Nightmare in the Red Chamber (Taipei: Huangguan, 1977). The book, containing Chang’s essays on authorship, themes, structure, character portrayal, and linguistic construction of the most renowned vernacular narrative of pre-modern China Dream in the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), is representative of her literary and artistic pursuits during her American years (1955-1995).]<br />
<br />
张爱玲（1920-1995）在对《红楼梦》的演说中回想起流言，这是她1944年在日本占领的上海发表的散文集的标题，源于英语谚语“写在水上。”她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不希望自己的写作能忍受–就像在水面上写的单词或“流淌的单词”一样，“流言”的字面意思是暂时徘徊并最终流失。但她也希望她的写作能被赋予“谣言”或“八卦”的精神（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，并引起广泛的听众。[参见Chang，Nightmare in the红楼（台北：皇馆，1977）。这本书包含了张的文章，涉及到《红楼梦》中前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她在文学和艺术上的追求。美国年（1955-1995）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 06:52, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲（1920-1995）在《红楼梦魇》一书的前言中谈到，“流言”意思源于英文谚语“写在水上，这也是她一部散文集的名字，出版于1944年在日本占领的上海后。她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不指望自己的作品渊远流长–就像“在水面上写的文字”或“流淌的文字”一样，一如“流言”的字面意思，暂时徘徊并最终流逝，但她也希望她的写作能带有“谣言”或“八卦”的意味（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，获得广泛的关注。[参见张爱爱玲，《红楼梦魇》（台北：皇冠出版社，1977）。这本书是张爱玲在美时期（1955-1995）对前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事小说《红楼梦》的研究成果，包含多篇文章，涉及《红楼梦》的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她的文学和艺术追求。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:26, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Chang’s use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang’s long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对自我反省语言的运用为好奇的读者/批评家提供了一个窗口，让他们得以深入了解正在创作中的作品的内在过程，因此，女作家的创作心理成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了，张爱玲通过长期努力在不同写作类型之间寻求界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人论文之间的区别受到了质疑。在这里，她作品命名背后的机制不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。标题不仅代表了一种新的散文写作风格，也代表了一种突出这种再造文学形式一般身份的相应方式。<br />
<br />
张爱玲对自我反省性语言的运用为好奇的读者/评论家提供了一个窗口，通过这个窗口，他们可以观察到创作过程中相当详细的过程，因此女作家的创作心态成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了张爱玲长期以来努力探讨不同文体之间界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人散文之间的区别受到质疑。在这里，她的作品命名方法不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。这个标题不仅表明了一种新的散文写作风格，而且也代表了一种相应的方式来突出这种革新的文学形式的共性特征。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
During the writing process, the essay writer creates a structure of both containment (language captures the sentiments of a particular moment) and opening (language is unlimited because it lacks definite meaning or substance); and during the reading process, the immediacy and the transitoriness of the messages conveyed in these linguistic structures are first to be comprehended.<br />
<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of ‘gossip’ or leisurely talks, Chang’s naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer’s commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation.[ For a standard historical account of cultural activities in occupied Shanghai, see Ke Ling, Zhuzi shengya (My Writing Career) (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986); also see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).]<br />
<br />
<br />
在写作过程中，散文作者创造了一个兼含遏制（语言要抓住具体某个时刻的情感）与开放（由于缺乏具体的含义或内容，语言是无限制的）的结构；阅读过程中，在这些语言结构中所表现的信息转瞬即逝的特点首先为读者所理解。<br />
<br />
用词像流水一样流畅，这种散文体裁可与“流言蜚语”或闲散的言语的流畅结构相比，张对她的作品的命名不仅仅展现了对文学创作实践的点评，更重要的是，这应该被理解为女性作家对中国现代史中某个特定时期的文化生产状况的评述，而这个时期，受战争及外国侵略的影响，是颠覆且破碎的。[关于上海占领区的文化活动的标准性历史记录，参见柯灵《煮字生涯》（太原：山西人民出版社，1986）； 另见傅葆石的“Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai”, 1937-1945 (斯坦福: 斯坦福大学出版社, 1993).]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:10, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang launched her writing career during the early 1940s, and her most important works, including the essays collected in Written on Water and the short stories collected in Chuanqi (Romances), were completed between 1943 and 45. Chang’s fictional writing has been subjected to abundant critical scrutiny since the late 1960s and early 1970s when scholars such as C.T. Hsia and Shui Jing started to reclaim the significance of Eileen Chang and promote her as one of the finest and the most original writers in the scene of twentieth century Chinese literature.[ See Shui Jing’s Paozhuan ji (Casting a Brick to Attract Jade) (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1969) and Zhang Ailing de xiaoshuo yishu (The Fictional Art of Eileen Chang ) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1973), as well as C. T. Hsia’s Aiqing, Shehui, Xiaoshuo (Love, Society, and Fiction) (Taipei: Chunwenxue chubanshe 1970), both published in Taipei. The three books were published in the midst of a renewed infatuation with the woman author shared by readers in Chinese-speaking communities outside of mainland China after 1949.] But the study of Chang’s essay writing is a different story.<br />
<br />
张爱玲的创作生涯始于20世纪40年代初，她的重要作品包括散文集《流言》和短篇小说集《传奇》，均创作于1943年至45年间。虽然自20世纪60年代末70年代初以来，张爱玲的小说创作一直受大众批评，但是当时夏志清和水晶等学者已经开始重新认识张爱玲的意义，并称她为“二十世纪中国文学界最优秀、最具原创性的作家之一“【详见水晶的《抛砖记》（台北：三民书局，1969）和《张爱玲的小说艺术》（台北：大地出版社，1973）以及夏至清的《爱·社会·小说》（台北：纯文学出版社，1970），均在台北出版。这三本书的出版之时，正值1949年后中国大陆以外的华语读者对这位女作家重新产生迷恋之时。】但对张爱玲的散文写作的研究则是另一番景象。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Since the most popular essays by Chang were written during the same period as her fictional writing, namely, between 1942 and 45, and some of her essays conveniently provided the concrete historical and biographical background against which the plot in her fictional writing was possibly designed, Chang’s essay writing has so far been read as the best commentaries to her fictional writing, particularly to the short stories collected in the acclaimed Romances.[ Wu Fuhui, among many others, argues that Eileen Chang’s essays are only interesting when read together with her short stories. He uses the essay entitled ”Jingyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes) as an example, arguing that the essay should be read as providing the necessary historical context to our understanding of Chang’s highly acclaimed novella Qingcheng zhi lian (Romance Among the Ruins). I disagree with Wu because the emphasis of the essay clearly lies elsewhere: it presents a social gallery of figures – a group of female college students, all from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whose brilliance of personality is brought out by the war. The novella, however, focuses more on the falling apart and the reconstructing of the beauty legend. Here the generic distinctions between fiction and essay are instrumental in piecing together the meanings of these two literary texts. See Wu’s preface toZhang Ailing sanwen quanbian (A Complete Collection of Eileen Chang’s Essays) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi chubanshe, 1995).] While such an approach to Chang’s essays can provide a coherent discussion of Chang’s literary writing as an entirety, it may overlook the specificities of the essay genre in the Chinese context and may also downplay the cultural significance of such formalistic experiments.<br />
<br />
由于张爱玲最受欢迎的散文写于她的小说创作的同一时期，即1942年至45年之间，而且她的一些文章方便地提供了具体的历史和生平背景，她的小说创作中的情节有可能是在这样的背景下设计的。因此，张爱玲的散文创作至今被解读为对她的小说创作，特别是对广受好评的《罗曼史》中收录的短篇小说最好的评论。[吴福辉等人认为，张爱玲的散文只有在与她的短篇小说一起阅读时才有意思。他以《灰烬中的故事》一文为例，认为这篇文章为我们理解张爱玲备受赞誉的小说《倾城之恋》（又名《废墟中的浪漫》）提供了必要的历史背景。我不同意吴的观点，因为这篇文章的重点显然在别处:它呈现的是一个人物的社会画廊——一群来自不同文化和民族背景的女大学生们，她们因战争而焕发出个性的光辉。然而，他的中篇小说更多地关注的是美人传奇的分崩离析和重构。 在这里，小说和散文之间的一般区别有助于拼凑这两种文学文本的意义。参见《张爱玲散文全集·张爱玲散文集》（杭州:浙江文艺出版社，1995）吴氏序。]这样的研究方法虽然可以从整体上对张爱玲的文学写作进行连贯的讨论，但却可能忽略了中国语境下的散文体裁的特殊性，也可能淡化这种形式主义实验的文化意义。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:07, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chang’s experiments with the modern essay serve to position her at a critical moment of literary transformation in modern China. While women writers had actively participated in both fictional and poetic writing since the early decades of this century, the essay genre had been monopolized by male writers. Three major essay traditions had already been canonized when Eileen Chang took up the essay as a vital means of representation. The ‘minor essay’ (xiaopin wen) tradition, represented by Zhou Zuoren and Lin Yutang, is characterized by a light and relaxing tone, a simple and elegant diction, political disengagement, wit, and a leisurely mood.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在现代散文领域做出的尝试实践将其置于现代中国文学转型的关键时期。尽管自世纪初的几十年起，女性作家便积极进行小说与诗歌写作，散文领域却被男性作家独占了。当张爱玲把散文作为一种重要的表现手段时，三种主要的散文传统已被神圣化。其中包括以周作人、林语堂为代表的小品文传统，其特点是语调轻快，用词简雅，政治疏离，风趣幽默，心境悠闲。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:11, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
The ‘miscellaneous essay’ (zawen) tradition, represented by Lu Xun and several generations of followers, including a group of leftist writers residing in Gudao (Isolated Island) Shanghai (1937-41), highlights intellectual sharpness and rhetoric eloquence, advocates active engagement with reality, and maintains the belief that literary writing should be employed as a powerful tool for social criticism and political intervention. And finally, the ‘refined essay’ (meiwen) tradition, represented by Zhu Ziqing and many writers from both the Literary Studies Circle (Wenxue yanjiu hui) and the Creation Society (Chuangzao she) since the 1920s, advocates linguistic experiments, whose goal is to create a language of refinement and elegance, and imageries that embody highly aesthetic and sensual qualities.[ Most standard literary histories published in China do not attempt to distinguish between different styles of modern essay writing. The zawen (the miscellaneous essay) tradition is often highlighted as the mainstream style for its definition of literature as social and political critique. These standard literary histories do acknowledge the lyrical qualities of xiaopin wen and meiwen but fail to situate the practice of these alternative essay writing styles in their cultural and intellectual contexts. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao (History of the ”New Literature” in China), Tang Tao and Yan Jiayan, Zhongguo xiandai wenxueshi (Modern Chinese History), and Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature).]<br />
<br />
杂文派的代表人物有鲁迅及其几代追随者，包括一群上海孤岛时期（1937-41）的左翼作家。他们强调知识分子的敏锐和修辞口才，倡导积极接触现实，并坚持认为文学写作应用作社会批评和政治干预的有力工具。最后是美文派，诞生于20世纪20年代，代表人物是朱自清以及来自文学研究会和创造社的许多作家。他们倡导语言实验，旨在创造一种精致优雅的语言，以及体现高度审美和感官品质的意象。[中国出版的大多数标准文学史并不试图区分不同风格的现代散文作品。杂文经常被视作主流文体，因为它把文学定义为社会和政治批判。这些标准的文学史确实承认了小品文和美文的抒情品质，但未能将这些另类散文的写作风格实践置于他们的文化和知识背景中。参考王耀，《中国新文学史稿》，汤涛、严家炎，《中国现代文学史》，钱理群等，《中国现代文学三十年》。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Most of the women writers in 1940s Shanghai experimented with essay writing. In fact, women produced a larger quantity of essays than any other literary genre. In addition to Eileen Chang, many women writers of the period, including Su Qing (1917-1982), Guan Lu (1908-1982), Pan Liudai (1922-?), and Shi Jimei (1920-1968), also discovered the generic fluidity embedded in the essay form. Compared to their experiments with other literary genres, such as fiction, drama, and poetry, it is in women’s essay writing of the period that the discourses of female gender and sexuality, issues of the domestic sphere, and the structures of social institutions such as marriage are most vigorously challenged and thoroughly reformulated. The essay genre is the most powerful literary form adopted by women writers such as Eileen Chang in their efforts to constantly redefine the boundaries between life and work, and to meticulously weave the space of private life together with the space provided by literary writing.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代，上海大部分女作家都尝试了散文写作。事实上，比起其他的文学体裁，女性写了更多的散文。除了张爱玲，许多当时的女性作家，包括苏青(1917-1982)、关露(1908-1982)、潘柳代(1922-?)和史集梅(1920-1968)也发现了散文形式中通用的流动性。比起尝试其他文学体裁，例如：小说，戏剧，诗歌，在这个时期的女性散文写作中，女性性别与性的论述，国内领域问题，社会制度结构如婚姻，受到了极大的挑战以及被彻底的重新制定。散文体裁是最有力的文学形式，女性作家如张爱玲使用这种文学体裁去不断重新定义生活和工作的界限，将私人生活的空间与文学写作提供的空间精心编织在一起。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
In the following sections, I will argue that the woman writer’s experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is not only mirrored in her representation of individual experiences of the war, the occupation, and the everyday, but also in her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay and to reinvent a kind of prose language that most vividly captures the transitional as well as eccentric nature of the essay genre. I will also argue that the choice of the essay form is central to Chang’s aesthetic vision.<br />
<br />
我在接下来的章节里会指出女性作家（指张爱玲）对于时间，空间和上海被占领这个特定历史环境的经历不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的个人经历的再现，也反映在她对于重新定义现代散文的尝试中，她试图重新创造一种散文体语言，这种语言可以最为清楚的捕捉到散文体裁的过渡和古怪的本质。我还将点明散文形式的选择是张爱玲审美视野的中心。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:07, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在下面章节中，我将证明这个观点，上海被侵占，这位女作家处于这样的时间，空间以及特殊环境下，她的经历不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的描述中，而且体现在她的意图中，她试图重新定义现代散文的通用身份，重塑一种散文语言，这种语言能极生动地展现散文体裁的过渡以及古怪性质。我也会证明文章形式的选择对张爱玲的审美视野至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在接下来的章节里，我会指出张爱玲对于时间、空间和上海被占领的特定历史背景的经历，不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的个人经历的再现里，也反映在她重新定义现代散文的尝试中，她试图重新创造一种散文体语言，这种语言可以最为清楚地捕捉到散文体裁过渡和古怪的本质。我还将点明散文形式的选择是张爱玲审美视野的核心。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The female writer’s self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. I will analyze Chang’s essay writing of the period to demonstrate how the genre was made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenged the literary conventions, searched for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promoted herself as an important cultural figure. The uniqueness of this body of literary texts lies in the fact that it presents a version of women’s literature set within the context of the wartime occupation while interacting with urban commercial and print culture in 1940s Shanghai.<br />
<br />
在1940年代的上海都市文化领域中，张爱玲作为女性作家的自我定位主要体现在她对体裁的运用上。我将通过分析张爱玲的那个时代的散文作品来展示体裁如何成为一个重要的话语场，在这个场内，张爱玲公开挑战文学传统、追寻文学创作和日常生活实践中的其他选择、促使她自己成为一位著名的文化人物。这部文学作品的主体部分的独特性在于它展现了1940年代上海战争占领期交织着都市商业和印刷文化的背景下的女性文学版本。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:36, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪40年代的上海都市文化领域中，张爱玲作为女性作家的自我定位主要体现在体裁运用方面。我将通过分析张爱玲的那个时代的散文作品，从而来展示体裁如何成为一个重要的话语场，在这个场内，张爱玲公开挑战传统文学，追寻文学创作和日常生活实践中的其他选择，这也促使她成为一位著名的文化大师。这部文学作品的主体部分的独特性在于，它展现了20世纪40年代上海战争占领期间，都市商业和印刷文化的背景下的女性文学。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代，女作家张爱玲在上海城市文化领域中的自我定位体现在她对该类题材的运用上。 我将分析张爱玲的这段时期的散文写作，以展示该流派如何成为一个重要的话语场所，在那儿女作家公开挑战文学习俗，在文学写作和日常生活实践中寻找替代品，并将自己提升为重要的文化人物。 这部文学作品的独特之处在于，它展现了战时职业背景下的女性文学作品，同时与20世纪40年代的上海商业和印刷文化交流互动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 08:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代，女作家在上海城市文化领域的自我定位，在她对文体的挪用中得到了体现。我将分析张爱玲这一时期的散文写作，以证明这一体裁是如何成为一个重要的话语场所的。在这里，这位女作家公然挑战文学惯例，在文学写作和日常生活实践中寻找替代方案，并将自己提升为一个重要的文化人物。这套文学文本的独特性在于，它呈现了一个以战时占领区为背景的女性文学版本，同时与1940年代上海的城市商业文化和印刷文化互动。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:07, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Essay and the aesthetics of liminality'''<br />
<br />
How, then, does Eileen Chang write the experience of war and turbulence into the transformed form of the modern essay? While the sense of impending massive destruction is omnipresent in her essay writing of the 1940s, the representation of the specific historical situation is not delivered through any direct social and political reference to the immediate present; instead, the presence of history is often concealed under the masquerade of an aesthetic vision put together by a meditative inward gaze, an orchestra of city sounds, and an imagined border of the urban civilization endangered:<br />
<br />
''散文和边际美学'''<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲如何将战争和动荡的经历写入现代散文的转变形式中呢？ 尽管在20世纪40年代，她的文章中彰显着无处不在的巨大的毁灭感。但这并不是通过直接的社会和政治因素作为参考来直接描述特定的历史情况。 相反，历史的存在通常隐藏于美学感官的掩饰下。这些美学观感由冥想的内心凝视，城市声音的管弦乐队和想象中的城市文明边界共同构成：<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 19:51, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Alone I sit next to a candle, thinking about the past and the present. What I have been busy doing for the last two years will probably be shattered soon. …… I should have a sense of it.<br />
<br />
I was alone on the dusky balcony after Su Qing left. Suddenly I saw a tall building far away, on whose edges hung a great swatch of rouge-like redness. At first I thought it was the reflection of the setting sun on the windows, but on second glance, I realized that it was a full moon, rising crimson above the city. I thought to myself, “so this is what they mean by turbulent times.” In the evening mist, the borders of Shanghai were gently rising and falling in the distance, resembling layered mountain peaks, although there are no mountains surrounding our city.<br />
<br />
我独自坐在蜡烛旁，思考着过去和现在。我这两年一直在忙的事情可能很快就会被破灭。我应该有这样的感觉。<br />
<br />
苏青走后，我独自站在昏暗的阳台上。突然，我看到远处的一幢高楼，它的边缘挂着一大片红晕。起初我以为是夕阳映在窗户上的倒影，但再一看，我意识到这是一轮满月，在城市的上空升起一片绯红。我对自己说，“这就是他们所说的动荡时代。在晚霞中，上海的边界在远处徐徐起伏，就像层层叠叠的山峰，尽管我们的城市周围没有山。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:27, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
我独自坐在蜡烛旁，思考着过去和现在。我这两年一直在忙的事情可能很快就会破灭。我应该做好准备。<br />
<br />
苏青走后，我独自站在昏暗的阳台上。突然，我看到远处的一幢高楼，它的边缘挂着一大片红晕。起初我以为是夕阳映在窗户上的倒影，但再一看，我意识到这是一轮满月，在城市的上空升起一片绯红。我对自己说，“这就是他们所说的动荡时代。在晚霞中，上海的边界在远处徐徐起伏，就像层层叠叠的山峰，尽管我们的城市周围并没有山。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:48, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
I pondered the fate of many people, including myself. I began to have a melancholy sense of what we call destiny. Such intimations normally connote self-involvement and self-pity, but I now think that they might suggest something altogether more broad. When the peace and security of the future finally do arrive, they will no longer belong to us; at the present moment each of us can only strive to comfort ourselves……[ See ”Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing), in Tiandi yuekan (Heaven and Earth Monthly) 19 (April, 1945).]<br />
<br />
This impressionistic silhouette of the city is none other than the dramatic presence of modern history itself. Here, history is visualized, flattened, and inevitably spatialized. The image of the city and the force of history intermingle into one performative moment, instantaneously captured by the ‘I,’ the woman writer, who sits on the balcony of her private home, looking out into the distance, watching the border of the city rise and fall, observing the currents of history come and go, as if the entire setting was a mere act in a long and winding chuanqi (romance) play.<br />
<br />
我思考了很多人的命运，包括我自己。我开始对我们所谓的命运感到忧郁。这种暗示通常意味着自我参与和自我怜惜，但我现在认为，它们可能意味着一些更广泛的东西。当未来的和平与安全最终到来时，它们将不再属于我们;此时此刻，我们每个人只能努力安慰自己。（见《我看苏青》，载于一九四五年四月的《天地月看》十九章）<br />
<br />
这个印象主义的城市剪影不是别人，正是现代史本身戏剧性的存在。在这里，历史被可视化、扁平化，并且不可避免地被空间化。城市的形象和历史的力量混合在这表演的一刻。与此同时，被“我”这位女作家捕捉到。这位女作家,坐在她的私人住宅的阳台,望向远处,看边境城市的兴衰,观察历史潮流的来来去去,整个背景好似一场漫长而曲折的传奇（浪漫）剧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 07:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
History in Eileen Chang’s representation becomes a narrative which rejects any deep structure or profound meaning. Characterized by chaos and reversal, history appears to be no more than a shadowy presence in our consciousness:<br />
<br />
In this era, the old things are falling apart, while the new ones are still in formation. Before the high tide of the era arrives, all certainty is but an illusion. We feel that everything in our everyday life is out of order to a terrifying degree. An individual belongs to a certain historical era, but our present era is sinking like a shadow; therefore we feel we have been deserted. In order to prove our own existence, we want to grasp onto something that is real, something fundamental. We then seek help from our ancient memory, the memory of human beings who have lived through various times in history.<br />
<br />
张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史以混乱和反转为特征，在我们的意识中似乎只不过是一个影子：<br />
在这个时代，旧事物正在分崩离析，而新事物还未形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有确定的东西都只是一种幻觉。我们觉得我们日常生活中的每件事混乱不堪，令人害怕。每个人都属于某个历史时代，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失，我们觉得自己被遗弃了。为了证明我们自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些基本的东西。然后，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，即曾经经历过不同时期的人的记忆。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史的特点是混乱和逆转，历史只不过是我们意识中的一个影子:<br />
在这个时代，旧事物在瓦解，而新事物正在形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有的确定事物不过是一种幻觉。我们感到日常生活中的每件事都是混乱不堪的。每个人都属于一个特定的历史时期，但是我们现在的时代像一种影子;因此，我们感到被遗弃了。为了证明自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些重要的东西。接着，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，也就是那些经历了不同历史时期的人的记忆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史具有混乱性和反转性，不仅仅是存在于我们意识中的一个影子：<br />
<br />
这个时代，旧事物在分崩瓦解，新事物在不断形成。在时代高潮到来之前，所有确定的事物不过是一种幻觉。让人害怕的是，我们意识到我们日常生活发生的一切都失去秩序。每个人都属于某个特定的历史时期，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失。因此，我们感觉自己被遗弃了。为了证明自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实并重要的东西。接着，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，也就是那些经历了不同历史时期的人类的记忆。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 08:13, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Looking back helps us regain more clarity and closeness than we might gazing far into the future. We then have a strange feeling about the reality that surrounds us. We begin to suspect that this is an absurd and antiquated world, gloomy and bright at the same time. Between memory and reality, there often arise unbearable discrepancies, resulting in a perplexing but subtle agitation, an intensified but indefinable struggle.[ See ”Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), in Written on Water, 1944. This translation is based on an earlier version by David Wang. See Wang, ”Fin-de-siècle Grandeur: Contemporary Women Writers’ Vision of Taiwan,” Modern Chinese Literature 5.4 (1992) 45-65.]<br />
<br />
回首过去而不是遥望未来有助于我们重新获得更清晰、更亲近的感觉。然后我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑这是一个荒诞而古老，阴暗而光明的世界。在记忆与现实之间，常常会产生难以忍受的差异，从而产生一种令人费解却又微妙的骚动，一种剧烈但难以言喻的斗争。[《写在水上》，1944年。此翻译是基于王大卫的早期版本。见王，“台湾当代女性作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4（1992）45-65。]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
回顾过去可以帮助我们重新获得比凝视遥远的未来更清晰和亲近的感觉。我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑，这是一个荒谬而陈旧的世界，黑暗与光明同时并存。在记忆和现实之间，常常会出现难以忍受的差异，导致一种令人困惑但微妙的激动，一种加剧但难以定义的挣扎。参见《自己的写作》，载于《水上记》，1944年。这个译本是根据王大卫的早期版本翻译的。参见王，“世纪末的宏伟:台湾当代女作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4(1992)45-65。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Here, history is no longer presented as a linearly progressing course; instead, it is broken into numerous fragments which can be reorganized and attributed with fresh meanings. The passage quoted above demonstrates Eileen Chang’s fascination with various liminal sites, in time or in space. Throughout her writing career, Chang has created many liminal sites, such as the illusory realm between memory and reality, the brief moment between past and present, and the intersection between life and work, fiction and poetry, stage movements and everyday events. The best of Chang’s writing often captures these transitional moments or sites, and the subjectivity in question is often taken over by a deep sense of uncertainty:<br />
<br />
在这篇文章中，历史不再被视为一个线性发展的过程。相反，它被分为许多片段，人们可以重新组织并赋予其新的含义。上面引用的这篇文章显示出了张爱玲对时空中边缘点的着迷。在她的整个写作生涯中，张爱玲创造了许多边缘点，例如记忆与现实之间的虚幻境界、过去与现在的短暂衔接点、以及生活与工作、小说与诗歌、舞台动作和日常事件之间的交汇点。 张爱玲著作的出彩之处往往在于，捕捉到了这些过渡节点，使得主观性常常被一种深深的不确定性所取代：--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:56, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这篇文章中，历史不再被视为一个线性发展的过程。相反，它被分为许多片段，能够被重新组织和赋予新的含义。上面引用的这篇文章显示出了张爱玲对时空中不同阈限点的着迷。在她的整个写作生涯中，张爱玲创造了许多阈限点，如记忆与现实之间的虚幻状态、过去与现在的短暂衔接点、以及生活与工作、小说与诗歌、舞台动作和日常事件之间的交汇点。 张爱玲最好的作品往往捕捉到了这些过渡瞬间或者节点，这使得主观性的问题常常被一种深深的不确定性所取代：--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 07:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
An individual can afford to wait, but an era is transient (''cangcu''). Things are being torn apart, and an even larger destruction is on its way. Someday our civilization, no matter how glorious, will become the past. I often use the word “desolation” (''huangliang'' 荒涼) because there is a premonition of impending danger underlying my thought. <br />
At such a ‘transient’ moment in history which will probably ‘sink’ like a ‘shadow’ in an instant, how, then, should an individual, in this case, a woman writer, position herself?<br />
Make yourself famous as early as possible! If success comes too late, it will not be as enjoyable. …… Hurry! Hurry! Otherwise it will be too late! Too late!<br />
<br />
一个人可以等待，一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天我们的文明，不论多么辉煌，都将成为过去。我经常使用“荒凉（desolation）”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着即将降临之危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:32, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个人或许等得起，但一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天，我们的文明不论曾经多么辉煌，都终将成为过去。我常使用“荒凉”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
These short, choppy sentences deliver a sense of urgency. To choose to define oneself through writing is then related to the woman writer’s understanding of the particular historical situation in 1940s Shanghai. It is a sense that the era is only a transitional moment in human history – the end is imminent and a new historical landscape will take shape. The imperative to make oneself famous then has to do with an urgent need to “occupy” a space in a swiftly dimishing landscape and to hold on to a moment that is constantly slipping away. Eileen Chang’s writing then highlights a very personal moment at a time when any individual voice is likely to be shattered by the grips of the modern warfare and eventually engulfed by the ruins of history.<br />
这些简短、不连贯的句子给人一种紧迫感。选择通过写作来定位自己，与张爱玲对20世纪40年代上海特殊历史境遇的认识有关。这给人的感觉是，这个时代只是人类历史的一个过渡时刻，结束迫在眉睫，新的历史景观即将形成。因为迫切需要在瞬息万变的情况下“占据”一个空间并抓住某个转瞬即逝的时刻，所以必须成名。张爱玲的作品强调了一个非常私人的时刻，在这个时刻，任何个人的声音都可能被现代战争的猛烈冲击所粉碎，并最终被历史的废墟所吞没。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:59, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些简短、起伏不定的句子给人一种紧迫感。选择通过写作来定义自己，则关系到女作家对20世纪40年代上海特定历史境遇的理解。这是一种感觉，这个时代只是人类历史上的一个过渡时刻--末日即将到来，一幅新的历史景观将会形成。因此，让自己出名的当务之急是迫切需要在迅速变暗的风景中“占据”一席之地，并抓住一个不断溜走的时刻。张爱玲的作品则突出了一个非常个人化的时刻，在这个时刻，任何个人的声音都可能被现代战争的控制所粉碎，最终被历史的废墟吞没。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Here the woman writer is going against her time by seeking an appropriate literary form and an adequate literary language to capture the essence of this fleeting moment in modern Chinese history. The new form and new language should be adequate to represent the dream-like world, the fragmented time, and the vanishing horizons of urban civilizations.<br />
<br />
Chang’s choice of the essay genre is then consistent with her unique vision of history and her fascination with what I would call ''the aesthetics of liminality''. One cannot find a more appropriate literary genre than the modern essay to capture the liminal qualities of that specific historical milieu. The essay is a genre that is positioned between the careful structuring of fiction and the free flow of poetry. The essence of essay writing lies exactly in its lack of essence or its eccentricity. The modern essay is a genre that is itself transitional.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
The liminal qualities of the modern essay are further enhanced in various textual strategies Chang uses to challenge generic identities in literary conventions. For instance, Chang’s essay entitled “Shuangsheng” (Duet) represents one of the most intrepid literary experiments undertaken during the period. The influence of the roundtable talk, a prominent genre in popular culture, had penetrated the realm of literary writing. In “Duet,” literary writing takes the form of a mini roundtable talk. At the beginning of the essay, like most of the roundtable talks recorded in popular journals of the time, the surroundings and the atmosphere are provided in a painstakingly descriptive language. The conversation takes place in a coffee shop, where Eileen Chang, the narrator, and Mo Meng (named Yan Ying elsewhere), Chang’s female companion, indulge themselves in coffee and pastry while starting their rambling chat about anything and everything:<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Having seated ourselves, we started chatting about a variety of things in great detail. When our topics became more weighty, she [Mo Meng] said: “You know what, this seems a lot like a roundtable discussion.”<br />
<br />
Within the space provided by the essay, the two women then continue to talk about a variety of topics: the language of love in both China and the West, the construction of romance in different cultural contexts, gender relationships inside and outside wedlock, fashions for women of different age groups, and the distinctiveness of the Japanese mentality. The fragmentary and all-inclusive qualities (''san'') of modern prose style (''sanwen'') had already been fully elaborated by Eileen Chang; the format of a roundtable talk coincides with the need to push the limit of modern prose style to its most eccentric, unrestrained, and far-ranging extreme.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
For a discussion of the roundtable talk as an important cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai, see Nicole Huang, ''Written in the Ruins: War and Domesticity in Shanghai Literature of the 1940s''. The roundtable talk became an instrumental cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai. It was a new form of showcasing women writers by placing words (voices) and images (descriptions of their presence, and photographs) all on display. Major newspapers and journals of the period all used this strategy to advertise their publication, promote their circles of new writers, and take part in the construction of an expanded community put together by publishers, editors, writers, artists, and readers.<br />
<br />
The structure of this essay also bears resemblance to that of a one-act play. The beginning passages can be viewed as stage descriptions. The action takes place in one quiet afternoon when two protagonists are engaged in a highly performative dialogue, and theatrical effect is enhanced when dramatic moments arise from time to time throughout the recorded conversation.<br />
<br />
对于圆桌谈话作为20世纪40年代上海的一个重要文化风尚的讨论，可参见Nicole Huang“写在废墟上：20世纪40年代上海文学中的战争与家庭生活”。圆桌谈话促进了上世纪40年代上海的文化风尚。这是一种通过言语（声音）和画面（关于仪态的描写以及照片）的共同作用来表现女性作家的新形式。当时的主流报纸和期刊都利用这一策略来宣传自己的出版物，推广自己的新作家圈子，并参与到建设一个由出版商、编辑、作家、艺术家和读者共同组成的不断扩大的社群中。<br />
这篇文章的结构也与独幕剧有相似之处。开头的段落可以被视作舞台描写。故事发生在一个寂静的午后，当时两个主角正在进行一场极具表演性的对话，在对话中，戏剧性的时刻不时出现，戏剧性因而得到增强。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:02, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
“Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing) presents Chang’s further effort to test the generic boundaries of the modern essay. The author effortlessly switches back and forth between her characterization of Su Qing and a close-up of the narrative self gazing inward. At one point in the essay, the author/narrative self pauses and admits that, in this essay devoted to Su Qing, she has actually devoted much more space to self-portrayal. Most of the time, the essay reads like an internal monologue: the narrative self is immersed in a constantly flowing display of numerous intimate moments. The free flowing of a sequence of random thoughts and the switch back and forth between different personas are fictional and theatrical devices used to further widen the representative capacities of the modern essay.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
While “The Way I See Su Qing” imports fictional devices into the form ‘minor essay,’ an earlier essay entitled “Siyu” (Whispers) demonstrates an even more radical experiment, that is, to turn the genre into a new form of autobiographical writing. The title of the essay takes on double meanings: while ‘''siyu''’could mean ‘private talks,’ it could also mimic the lowered and fragmented voice used in talking about the most intimate moments in one’s private life. The narrative voice in the essay whispers, murmurs, and gossips. Nothing substantial is presented; instead, segments of life, tinted with the haziness of childhood memory, are organized in the re-invented prose form, like a stream of thoughts or a random layout of scenes. The technique used here closely resembles montage: segments of the past are presented like flashbacks, and moments of free-association further remind the reader of the constantly blurred boundaries between memory and reality, past and present. <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The essay entitled “Tongyan wuji” (A Childish Discourse) presents another example of writing autobiography within the space of the modern essay. Sometimes the way that moments of childhood memory are narrated resembles the use of close-ups in film-making. The following episode even makes a direct reference to cinema:<br />
<br />
I stood in front of the mirror and watched my trembling face, with tears falling down in streams. My face looked like a close-up in a movie. I told myself, grinding my teeth: “I want revenge. One day I will take my revenge.”<br />
<br />
Each sub-section in this essay – ‘Money,’ ‘Fashion,’ ‘Food,’ ‘Gentleman,’ and ‘Brother’ – can be viewed as one filmic long take, and there is no direct connection between them. The entire essay is put together by a series of long takes. Within the space of the modern essay, there appear to be many of these extended fictional or cinematic moments. Sometimes, description of details of clothing, or simply the pattern on a piece of fabric, can contribute to the shaping of a dramatic moment, the formation of a narrative structure. The following passage from the same essay is a good example:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Japanese printed fabrics. Each bolt is a work of art. Each time I bring one home, before handing it over to a tailor, I repeatedly unroll it and bask in the image. A small Burmese temple is half shielded by the leaves of a palm tree; rain is falling incessantly through the reddish brown haze of the tropics. A pond in early summer, the water coated with a layer of green scum, above which float duckweed and fallen lilac petals, purple and white. Seemingly a fitting scene for a song lyric set to the tune “Laments of the South of the Yang-tze” (Ai Jiangnan)……<br />
<br />
Reading some of these highly aesthetic moments in Chang’s essay writing, we might argue that it is within the space provided by the modern essay and by means of cinematic devices that the fragmentation of conventional fictional language becomes inevitable.<br />
<br />
日本的印花面料。每一根螺栓都是一件艺术品。每次带回家，在交给裁缝之前，我都会反复展开，沐浴在画面中。一座缅甸小庙被棕榈树叶半遮半掩，雨水透过热带的红褐色雾气，不停地落下。初夏的池塘，水面涂上一层绿色的水垢，上面漂浮着鸭舌草和落下的丁香花瓣，紫白相间。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景......<br />
<br />
解读张爱玲散文写作中的一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间里，并且借助电影手段，传统小说语言的碎片化才成为必然。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:56, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本织锦。每一匹日本织锦都是一件艺术品。每当我将一匹日本织锦带回家，我会反复展开织锦，醉心于上面的图案，然后才会交给裁缝。一座缅甸小佛寺在棕榈树叶的遮蔽下若隐若现；热带地区红褐色的雾霭之中，细雨绵绵。初夏的一方池塘里覆盖着一层绿色水垢，上面漂浮着被风吹落的丁香花瓣，白的紫的都有。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景……<br />
<br />
阅读张爱玲的散文作品，尤其是其中一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文提供的空间里，并借助电影手段，传统小说语言的断层化已成必然。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:10, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
'''Essay and the making of a new prose language'''<br />
<br />
Few writers in twentieth-century China are as persistent as Eileen Chang was in constantly experimenting with new literary language. In her essay entitled “Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), Chang retrospectively remarks on her use of a new fictional language in the novella ''Lianhuantao'' (Linked Rings):<br />
<br />
I adopted the language from traditional fiction on many occasions when writing the novella ''Chain of Rings''. In the story, Cantonese people and foreigners who lived fifty years ago speak like figures walking out of [the world of] ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' (Jing Ping Mei), …… My original intention was: I already created a considerable distance in space by writing about a romanticized Hong Kong from the point of view of a Shanghainese; I also created a distance in time by writing about the Hong Kong of fifty years ago. Therefore I intentionally adopted an antiquated diction to represent such a doubled displacement (''shuangchong juli''). ……<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
To situate the story in both a remote time and a distancing space endows the writer with abundant freedom in her choice of language. By returning to traditional literature to search for imaginative inspiration and expressive resources, Eileen Chang has redefined, on the discursive level, the cultural as well as political connotations of the modern vernacular language. For a modern reader who has considerable knowledge of the May Fourth literature, Chang’s fictional language presents the reader with a remote system of referentiality by using diction and narrative tone characteristic of those used in classical Chinese novels such as ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
What, then, are the characteristics of Chang’s linguistic experiments in her essay writing of the period? The titles of both the essay collection ''Written on Water'' and the essay “Whispers” can be viewed as the author’s own commentaries on the language she has chosen for the transformed essay genre. While literary language is compared to voices whispering, murmuring, or gossiping, and while words can eventually flow away just like water, the practice of writing then is a process of both embracing and breaking away from words, and the meanings that are presented no longer contribute to a system of enclosure. Chang’s naming highlights the indeterminacy of literary language and directs the reader’s attention to the uncertainty embodied in both the structure of the essay and the language that it employs.<br />
<br />
In the opening passage of the essay “Tan nüren” (Talking about Women), collected in ''Written on Water'', in a whimsical and relaxed tone, Eileen Chang cites a characterization of ‘women’ presented in a small pamphlet written by an English author:<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言实验上有什么特点呢？ 散文集''写在水面上''和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言的评论。 文学语言被比喻为声音的窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张先生的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者注意到文章的结构和所采用的语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言研究方面的特点是什么？ 散文集《写在水面上》和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言评论。 文学语言被比喻为窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张爱玲的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者去注意文章的结构和所采用语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Westerners refer to sinister and cruel (''yinxian kebo'') women as ‘cats.’ I ran across a pamphlet recently, written in English, entitled ''Cats'', which does nothing else except condemn women. It is not that what is said in it has never been expressed by other people. Interesting remarks (''juanyu'') concerning women are scattered everywhere and it is just not easy to collect them all together. But here this pamphlet is really a compilation (''ji qi dacheng'') [of what has been said about women]. <br />
<br />
Chang then invites her readers to accompany as she glances through a group of quotes she has selected and translated from that pamphlet, much of which is a condemnation of women’s erotic potential. Not a single word of explicit judgment is offered throughout the essay by Chang, nor are the assumptions contained in this pamphlet about the gendered character of each individual expressly challenged. After reading Chang’s essay, a reader might wonder to what extent has the ‘real’ author behind the masquerade of the narrative internalized such an ‘othered’ male view?<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本小册子，是用英语写的，册子标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把它们收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:54, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本英文小册子是用英语写的，标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把这些言论收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:28, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
And to what extent is Chang’s translation ‘faithful’ to the original text? The original author’s name remains unmentioned in Chang’s essay, making it difficult to assess the extent to which the original ‘male’ narrative voice has been twisted or distorted by Chang’s rendition. The narrative voice appears to be a composite in those quotes and is even more so in the rest of her essay. One approach to reading Chang’s essay is then to regard the quotation as an integral part of the whole essay, to view it as Eileen Chang’s own linguistic construction, a construction which already contains her critique. Within these quotes, the message is complicated, and presented in several levels. Some of the quotes are reminiscent of an archetypal ‘male’ voice:<br />
<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
This kind of fictional and temporal distance is also characteristic of Chang’s short stories written during the period. David Wang argues that the fictional world presented in the short stories in ''Romances'' points to a remote system of referentiality for modern readers by interweaving many ”unreal” elements such as the fantastic, the grotesque, the decadent, and the dark romanticist. See Wang, ”Nü zuojia de xiandai guihua: cong Zhang Ailing dao Su Weizhen” (Modern Ghost Narratives by Women Writers: from Eileen Chang to Su Weizhen), in ''Zhongsheng xuan-hua: sanshi yu bashi niandai de Zhongguo xiaoshuo'' (Heteroglossia: Chinese Fiction of 1930s and 1980s).<br />
<br />
这种虚构性和时代性的距离，也是他在这一时期创作的短篇故事的特点。王大卫认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《女作家的现代鬼故事:从张爱玲到苏伟真》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十、八十年代小说)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种虚构和时代的距离，也是这一时期张爱玲创作短篇故事的特点。王德威认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说)。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:01, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虚构的时代距离感也是这一时期张爱玲短篇故事的特点。王德威认为《浪漫》这一短篇故事中呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“非真实”元素，例如：奇幻、怪诞、堕落和黑暗浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个距离久远的指称系统。参见王的《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》（杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:59, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种虚构与时间的距离，也是张这一时期短篇小说的特点。王大卫认为，浪漫小说短篇小说所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义等“不真实”元素，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的参照系。见王，《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说)。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:47, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
“The physical construction of women is so exquisite; therefore, their spiritual construction is incomplete. This is predictable. We just cannot be over-critical of them [women].” <br />
<br />
“If you do not seduce a woman, she would say that you are not a man; if you do, she would say that you are not a man of the upper-class.” <br />
<br />
“The only difference between a woman and a dog is: a dog is not as spoiled as a woman is; a dog does not wear jewelry; and – thank God! – a dog does not speak!”<br />
<br />
The expected readers of the pamphlet ''Cats'' are married middle-class men. According to Eileen Chang, the original author admits that, “a man, after having just fought with his wife, would feel comforted if he reads this pamphlet before he goes to bed.” Functioning as a psychological therapy, the expected reading process should yield pleasure which soothes grievances and unhappiness in one’s ‘actual’ life.<br />
<br />
“女人的身体构造如此精巧，所以她们的精神构造是不完整的。这是可以预见的。我们不能对她们（女性）过分挑剔。”<br />
“如果你不勾引女人，她会说你不是男人；如果你这样做，她会说你不是上流社会的男人。”<br />
“女人和狗的唯一区别是：狗不像女人那样娇惯；狗不戴首饰；还有——感谢上帝！–狗不会说话！”<br />
短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个男人刚和妻子吵架后，如果在睡觉前读这篇小说，他会获得慰藉。”预期阅读过程作为一种心理治疗，应该会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的不快。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“女人物质方面的构造实在太合理化，精神方面未免稍差，那也是意想中的事，不能苛求。”<br />
<br />
“如果你不调戏女人，她说你不是一个男人；如果你调戏她，她说你不是一个上等人。”<br />
<br />
“女人与狗唯一的分别就是：狗不像女人一般地被宠坏了；它们不戴珠宝；而且——谢天谢地！–它们不会说话！”<br />
<br />
短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个刚和太太吵过嘴的男子，上床之前读这本书，可以得到安慰。”作为一种心理疗法，阅读过程中的预期会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的悲伤和不快。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:24, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Within this reading process, through the mediation of a narrative language, the imagined male reader takes upon the implicit point of view built in the assumed male author’s account, manipulates and appropriates the construction of the female image, and displaces his sense of anger, repression, and alienation, or his frustrated desire for control and domination, onto such a constructed image. For a married man, the unsuccessful threats toward his wife in real life can then be successfully prosecuted on a textual level.<br />
<br />
在这一阅读过程中，通过叙事语言的中介，想象中的男性读者接受了假定男性作者叙述中的隐含观点，操纵和挪用了女性形象的建构，转移了他的愤怒、压抑和疏离感，或是他对控制和支配的挫败欲望，变成了这样一个构建的形象。对于已婚男人来说，现实生活中对妻子的不成功的威胁可以在文本层面上成功地继续下去。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:32, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such a female erotic image depicted in a seemingly unambiguous male text could generate a variety of culturally coded specific meanings and gendered differences. However, the tone of Chang’s language seems to invalidate the possibilities of applying an ideologically charged critique of these messages. Her narrative tone is relaxed, whimsical, playful, humorous, and somewhat ironic. The message transmitted in these quotes is impure, it has been reworked, and already contains a ‘look.’ This ‘look’ is interwoven with a sense of irony. This is even more explicit in some of her other quotes:<br />
<br />
一个看似毫不含糊的男性文本中所描绘的一个这样色情的女性形象，可能会引发各种文化编码的具体含义和性别差异。然而，张爱玲的语调似乎使对这些信息进行意识形态化批判的可能性失效。她的叙述基调是轻松，异想天开，顽皮，幽默，并有点讽刺。在这些引语中传递的信息是不纯洁的，它已经被改写了，并且已经包含了一个“看呐”。这个“看呐”与一种讽刺感交织在一起。这一点在她的一些其他语录中更为明确：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:32, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
“A man can flirt with a bar waitress in the squalid bar without losing his reputation; yet an upper-class woman is not even allowed to blow a kiss at a postman from afar. We can then draw an inference that men are different from women – no matter how low they [men] bend their backs, it is never difficult for them to stand up straight again.” <br />
“Generally speaking, women do not need the variety of stimulants in their lives that men do. Therefore, we should tolerate a man if he transgresses boundaries during his leisure time, in order to enliven his weary body, [to expel] his worries, [and to accomplish] his unrealized aspirations.”<br />
<br />
“一个男人可以在肮脏的酒吧里和女招待调情而不会失去他的名誉；然而，一个上层社会的女性却不允许向远方的邮差飞吻。所以我们可以推断出男人和女人是不同的，无论他们（男人）的腰弯的多低，对他们来说，要重新站起来从来都不难。”<br />
“一般来说，女人不像男人那样需要各种各样的兴奋剂，因此，我们应该容忍一个男人在闲暇时间越界，为了活跃他疲惫的身体，驱逐他的忧愁，实现他已经未尽的愿望”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 13:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
These quotes should be understood as mainly Eileen Chang’s own rendition. Through the ironic tone, the message becomes twisted, distorted, highly dramatized, and thereby transformed into parody and ridicule. If Eileen Chang does seek to tease out this assumed male voice, such an attempt proceeds through the creation of a narrative distance, a sense of innuendo, a skillful rewording of the male voice, and not through any explicit charges or critiques. The reader is left to herself to read between the lines, to speculate about the hints, and to screen out the mixed messages.<br />
<br />
这些引言应主要理解为张爱玲自己的演绎。 通过讽刺的语气，信息变得扭曲，变形，极度戏剧化，从而变成了模仿和嘲讽。 如果张爱玲确实想挑逗这种假定的男性声音，这种尝试则需要通过建立叙事距离，无影无踪的感觉，对男性声音的熟练措辞，而不是通过任何明确的指控或批评来进行。读者需要自己逐行细读，来推测线索，冰筛选出混合的消息。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Despite the absence of an explicit criticism toward this unambiguous male voice, Eileen Chang’s presentation has revealed the fact that the male denunciation of the public effects of a female eroticism is itself manifested in an eroticized form. Such an eroticized form has been dramatized to the extreme by Chang in her skillful rewording. A reader would ponder whether this male denunciation addresses the danger of the placing women in public display or is itself a public display of women as eroticized subjects? Eileen Chang’s appropriation of the male denunciation of female eroticism becomes a doubled affirmation of the much textualized eroticizing potential of female images, which makes it difficult to pin down the ‘femaleness’ of her use of literary language. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
In her recent study of Eileen Chang’s fictional writing, Rey Chow defines Eileen Chang’s ‘femininity’ as predominantly associated with ”irrelevant” details. In the picture painted by Chow, ‘detail’ carries a distinctively ‘feminine’ label and is defined as ”the sensuous, trivial, and superfluous textual presence that exists in an ambiguous relation with some larger ‘vision’ such as reform and revolution.” Chow argues that Eileen Chang constructs a different vision of modernity and history through ”a release of sensual details whose emotional backdrop is often that of entrapment, destruction, and desolation.” Eileen Chang’s understanding of culture, therefore, carries a ”powerfully negative affect.” See Rey Chow, Chapter III ”Modernity and Narration: in Feminine Detail” in her ''Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East'' (Minnesota and Oxford: University of Minnesota Press, 1991) 85.<br />
<br />
Rey Chow’s emphasis on the intricately related history of details and the feminine in the Chinese case is certainly illuminating in the sense that she suggests a new perspective to define the significance of Eileen Chang’s writing and thus a new way of critiquing the construction of a history of modern Chinese literature as a whole.<br />
<br />
在最近对张爱玲小说作品的研究中，周蕾将张爱玲的“女性气质”与不拘小节联系在一起。在周蕾的画作中，“细节”贴上了明显的“女性化”标签，带有“感性、微不足道以及在改革和革命这样的大事面前画蛇添足”的含义。“周蕾认为张爱玲创造了一种独特的视角来表现历史和现实，即释放情感细节，这些情感往往是诱惑、毁灭和隔绝，因而张爱玲对文化的理解带有一种“强烈的负面影响”。参见周蕾的著作 ''女性与中国现代性：中西方的阅读政治性''的第三章“现代性与叙事：女性化细节”（明尼苏达和牛津：明尼苏达大学出版社， 1991），第85页。<br />
<br />
周蕾对复杂的细节史与中国女性的强调是令人有所启发的，她提出了一种新的视角来界定张爱玲的作品的意义，从而为整个中国现代文学史的建构提供了一种新的评论思路。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
最近在对张爱玲小说作品的研究中，周蕾将张爱玲的“女性气质”主要与“不相关”的细节联系在一起。周蕾的画作中“细节”被贴上了明显的“女性化”标签，带有“感性、微不足道以及在改革和革命这样的大事面前画蛇添足”的含义。周蕾认为张爱玲创造了一种独特的视角来表现历史和现实——释放情感细节，这些情感往往是诱惑、毁灭和隔绝，因而张爱玲对文化的理解带有一种“强烈的负面影响”。参见周蕾的著作《女性与中国现代性：中西方的阅读政治性》的第三章“现代性与叙事：女性化细节”（明尼苏达和牛津：明尼苏达大学出版社， 1991），第85页。<br />
<br />
周蕾对复杂的细节史与中国女性的强调是令人有所启发的，她提出了一种新的视角来界定张爱玲的作品的意义，从而为整个中国现代文学史的建构提供了一种新的评论思路。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, in Rey Chow’s categorization of Eileen Chang, a new type of femininity is classified, whose characteristics are intimate, domestic, sensuous, pre-rational, trivial, obsessed with its sexual being, yet embodying subversive strength and transgressive potentials. This seemingly fresh and autonomous femininity does take one thing for granted, that is the unproblematized association between the female, the domestic, and trivial details. Rey Chow’s emphasis on feminine detail may have endowed Eileen Chang’s writing with a critical power deriving from the marginal position that she is inscribed in; but to domesticate Chang, to enclose her within woman’s traditional domain of the home, could also lead to the draining of the heaviness and the other intellectual potentialities in Chang’s writing.<br />
<br />
不过，周蕾在将张爱玲的作品分门别类时，分类出一种新型的女性气质，这种气质具有亲密、顾家、性感、前理性、细心、着迷于性感本身，但却表现出毁坏性的力量以及违背道德的潜力。这种看上去新奇而自发的女性气质却也忽略了一样事情——女性与家庭、琐事之间联系毫无问题。周蕾对于女性气质的强调赋予张爱玲的作品一种权力批判——这来自其所处的边缘位置。但若要使张爱玲适应家庭生活，使她待在传统女性所应当待着的家中，将会导致其作品中的沉重以及其他智力潜能逐渐消失。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The terms ”protective language” and a ”neutralizing middle tongue” are lifted out of Catharine Stimpson in her discussion of Gertrude Stein’s writing. According to Stimpson, ”Stein’s coding of sexual activities becomes a privileged and a distinguished ‘anti-language’,” that is, a language of ”anti-societies.” Stimpson argues against some other critics’ attempts to ”adjectify” Stein’s work as ”female.” She suggests that Stein’s language is ultimately ”impure,” it is ”linear as well as pluridimensional,” it is ”male” as well as ”female.” Stimpson argues that Stein’s literary language is neither ”female,” nor ”an unmediated return to signifiers freely wheeling in maternal space.” See Stimpson, ”The Somagrams of Gertrude Stein,” in ''The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives'', edited by Susan Rubin Suleiman.<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁格·斯坦因的著作时，“保护性语言”和“中立的中性语言”一词被从凯瑟琳·斯廷普森删除。斯廷普森认为，“斯坦因对性行为的编码成为一种特权和一种独特的'反语言'，即'反社会'的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容”为“女性”的说法。她认为斯坦的语言最终是“不纯正的”，既是“线性的又是多维度的”，既是“男性的”又是“女性的”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性的”，也不是指“无意中回归到指代者而自由地进入母体空间”。请参见苏珊·鲁滨·苏蕾曼编辑的《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中格特鲁德·斯坦的躯体语言。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁德·斯坦因的作品时，凯瑟琳·斯廷普森讨论了“保护性语言”和“中和性的中间语言”。根据斯廷普森的说法，“斯坦因对性行为的编码变成了一种特权和独特的‘反语言’”，也就是说，是一种“反社会”的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容为女性”。她认为斯坦因的语言最终是“有杂质的，“它是“线性也是多元维度的”，它是“男性”也是“女性”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性”，也不是“在母体空间中自由转动的能指的无中介回归”。参见斯廷普森德《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中的格特鲁德·斯坦因的躯体语法，苏珊·鲁宾·苏莱曼主编。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Julia Kristeva suggests that ”the very dichotomy man/woman as an opposition between two rival entities may be understood as belonging to metaphysics”; it must be dismantled through ”the demassification of the problem of difference, which would imply, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘flight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” Kristeva refers to this as ”a strategy of disintegration.” This strategy is a ”true radicalism” in such attempts ”to undo given identities, to go beyond the policy of creating counter-identifications.” See ”Women’s Time” (translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake) in ''Signs'' (Autumn, 1981).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
那么，分析张爱玲语言中的女性特征也许不是一种恰当的方法。我们无法十分肯定地说她的作品体现了近代中国文学中的女性传统，这一传统以五四文体为特征。张爱玲作品中的文化边缘性、对细枝末节的关注、蕴含的家庭特征以及对男性家长和性别关系的调侃无一不促使评论家将其打上女性特质的标签。但是我们不能将张爱玲的语言简单地划分为两个对立面：一方面是传统的父权话语，另一方面则是实验性的反父权话语，她的文学语言无疑是模糊的，是一种位于两种状态分界处之上的语言，是一种糅合了“男性”与“女性”与一身的语言。在很多情况下，她的语言都表现出一种所谓的“保护性”、“中性的口吻”，或者说是一种隐没而非彰显的语言。张爱玲的作品语言的复杂性让我们无法将其中的语法、表达以及用词性别化，这种语言正是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，消除了分化不同身份的可能性。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 03:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
那么，或许考察张爱玲语言的“女性性”并不是一个合适的方法。我们也不能自信地将张爱玲纳入中国现代女性文学传统，这一传统通常以五四文体为特征。张爱玲的文化边缘性，她对无关紧要的细节和家庭生活的兴趣，以及她对家长和性别关系的揶揄，都诱使评论家给她的作品贴上各种女性特质的标签。但张爱玲的声音不能简单地归为传统与父权话语和实验与反父权话语的二分法。它显然是不洁净的;它是一种占据了阈限空间的语言;这是一种混合的声音，有“男性”的，也有“女性”的。“在很多情况下，她的语言似乎是所谓的‘保护性语言’，一种‘中立的中间语言’，一种隐藏而非揭示的语言。”混合的声音阻止我们继续在她的写作中对语法、表达和措辞进行“性别化”。张爱玲的语言是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，是一种消除不同身份分化可能性的语言。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:07, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In Eileen Chang’s essay writing, it is finally the narration itself that becomes a site where conflicting cultural discourses meet and interact. The narrative voice does not embody or point to any authoritative discourses: it is neither the passive receiver of a system of accomplished social customs and values containing stereotypes of passive femininity, nor a spokeswoman for a ‘progressive’ nationalist ideological agenda. While history is viewed as transitory and fragmented, the language used to account for this history is no longer something which is ideologically or rhetorically charged. It is not a language to account for truth and beliefs, it is a language of ‘paradox’ and ‘enigma’; it is a ‘counter-language.’ Chang’s use of language serves to recuperate a remote tradition that is incompatible to the present historical situation, and to restore a different set of voices which are inconsonant with the chorus of her time.<br />
在张爱玲的散文写作中，最终是叙事本身成为了冲突的文化话语相遇和互动的场所。叙事的声音不体现或指向任何权威的话语:它既不是既有社会习俗和价值观体系的被动接受者，也不是“进步的”民族主义意识形态议程的发言人。虽然历史被认为是短暂的和支离破碎的，但用来解释这段历史的语言不再是某种意识形态或修辞上的指控。它不是一种解释真理和信仰的语言，它是一种“悖论”和“谜”的语言;它是一种“反语言”。张爱玲对语言的运用是为了恢复与当前历史形势不相容的遥远传统，并恢复与她那个时代的合唱不一致的一套不同的声音。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Chang’s essay writing indicates that the coherence of a so-called women’s literary writing tradition in modern China is a mere fabrication. The linguistic constructions in Chang’s essay writing playfully appropriate male fantasies, turning them into props in the creation of a new literary space. By turning structures of male fantasies into narrative devices, and by transforming male voices to enhance the theatrical effect of essay writing, Eileen Chang has demonstrated a much more confident gesture in offering a critique of gendered constructions in both the larger social context and the sphere of literary writing.<br />
<br />
'''Essay and the Invention of Life in Wartime'''<br />
<br />
In the preface to her 1988 collection entitled '''Xuji''' (The Sequel), Eileen Chang confesses that she has been a “loyal believer” in Greta Garbo’s philosophy of life:<br />
张爱玲的散文著作揭示了这样一个事实，现代中国所谓的女性文学写作传统不过是对男性文学写作传统的伪造。她的散文著作中，语言结构巧妙地借用了男性的幻想思维，将其转换为创造新文学空间的支柱。张将男性幻想结构转换为叙述手法，并且转换男性的叙述口吻，以此提高散文写作所带来的戏剧影响，在广大的社会背景条件下和文学创作方面，提出了性别结构批评，对此，她信心满满。在其1988年出版的名为《战争时代的散文与发现》一书的前言中，张爱玲坦白说，她是葛嘉丽·宝格生活哲学的忠诚信仰者。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:48, 3 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
张爱玲的散文作品表明现代中国所谓的女性文学创作传统的一致性仅仅是捏造而已。她在散文作品的语言结构中巧妙地运用了男性的幻想，并将其转化为创造新文学空间的支柱。通过将男性幻想结构转变为叙事手法，并通过转换男性的叙述口吻来增强散文写作的戏剧效果，张爱玲在更大的社会背景和文学创作领域中以更加自信的姿态提出了性别结构批评。<br />
<br />
'''散文和战时的生活发现'''<br />
<br />
在她1988年出版的名为《续集》(The Sequel)一书的序言中，张爱玲坦诚地说她一直是葛丽泰·嘉宝人生哲学的“忠实信仰者”：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 07:37, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
For several decades, relying on make-up and acting skills, she [Garbo] lived the life of a recluse, seldom seen through by other people. Her life-time belief was that “I want to live by myself.” …… Why is it that writers also have a hard time preserving the privacy of their lives? <br />
<br />
These sentiments could not have been expressed back in the 1940s. The solitude of the latter half of Chang’s life, that is, the four decades since she came to America in the fall of 1955, forms a sharp contrast to the glorious moments during the first half of the 1940s, particularly the years of 1944 and 1945, when she and Su Qing emerged in the cultural scene of Shanghai simultaneously and became brighter stars than the most acclaimed movie actresses and popular singers.<br />
<br />
几十年来，她[Garbo]依靠化妆和表演技巧，过着隐居的生活，很少被其他人看到。她一生的信念是“我想一个人生活”。……为什么作家在保护自己的生活隐私方面也遇到困难？<br />
早在1940年代就无法表达这些观点。Chang的后半生的孤独，即自1955年秋天来美国以来的四个十年，与1940年代上半叶，尤其是1944和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明的对比。 当她和苏青同时出现在上海的文化舞台上时，他们成为了比最受好评的电影女演员和流行歌手更耀眼的明星。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:34, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
几十年来，她(嘉宝)凭借着化妆和表演技巧，过着避世的生活，很少被其他人看到。她的人生信条就是“我想一个人过活。”......为什么作家也很难保护自己生活的隐私呢？<br />
这些观点在20世纪40年代是不可能表达出来的。张爱玲后半生的孤独，即她自1955年秋来美国后的40个年头里的孤独。这与她在20世纪40年代上半期，特别是1944年和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明对比，当时她和苏青共同出现在上海的文坛上，成为比最著名的电影演员和流行歌手还要耀眼的巨星。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
几十年来，她（嘉宝）依靠化妆和演技，过着隐居的生活，很少被别人看穿。她一生的信念是“我要自己生活”……为什么作家也很难保护自己的生活隐私？--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
这些情绪在20世纪40年代是难以表达的，张爱玲后半生的孤独，也就是1955年秋天来到美国的四十年，与二十世纪40年代上半叶，特别是1944年和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明的对比，当她和苏青同时出现在上海的文化舞台上，成为比最受赞誉的电影女演员和流行歌手更耀眼的明星。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
As argued earlier, the most important players in this society-wide promotion of women intellectuals were none other than women writers themselves. And among all literary genres, it was the modern essay that became the most powerful form of expression in women writers’ self-promotion and myth-making. Essay served to contribute concrete forms to a life that was void of any structure; in other words, women writers such as Eileen Chang and Su Qing used the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one’s imagination and fantasy could anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. In this section I will highlight two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang’s essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness.<br />
<br />
如前所述，在整个社会范围内提升女性知识分子最重要的参与者就是女性作家本身。在所有文学体裁中，现代散文成为女性作家自我提升和神话创造中最有力的表达形式。散文可以为没有任何结构的生活提供具体形式：换句话说，张爱玲和苏青等女性作家利用现代散文的形式，构建了一个个人想象和幻想可以驻留的可理解的宇宙。对日常经验的详细描述，即对物质世界的文化意义的陈述，不仅体现了动态的内心生活，而且体现了一种形成中的新的社会认同。在这一章中，我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中所概念化的生活的两个方面，一方面是作为城市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间，另一方面是将时尚的讲话视为物质意识的一个重要形式。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:13, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
如前所述,一个社会对女性知识分子的推动,最重要的力量莫过于女性作家本身。 而在所有文学体裁中,正是现代散文成为女作家自我提升和神话创作中最有力的表现形式。 "散文"为一种没有结构的生活贡献了具体的形式,换句话说,张爱玲、苏青等女性作家用现代散文的形式,构建了一个可以理解、想象和幻想的宇宙。 对日常生活经验的详细描述,即对物质世界文化意义的表述,不仅体现了动态的内心生活,而且表现了一种孕育中的新的社会认同。 在这一章中,我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中概念化的生活的两个方面：一方面是作为都市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间,另一方面是将时尚作为物质意识的重要形态的论述。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 06:20, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
'''Passage from apartment to street'''<br />
<br />
In her essay entitled “Gongyu shenghuo jiqu” (Interesting Moments in Apartment Life), Chang depicts a spatial construction which serves as the backdrop of the formation of a new urban persona:<br />
<br />
I would ride the wind, returning up there,<br />
but fear those marble domes and jade galleries<br />
the place so high, the cold is unbearable …… <br />
<br />
On reading these lines, residents who live on top floors of apartment buildings will more or less shiver with fear. The higher the apartment, the colder. Ever since the price of coal soared , radiators in apartments have become purely decorative. The “H” on the hot water faucet is indispensable in order to perfect the bathroom design; but if you turn on the hot water tap by mistake, a hollow but grievous rumble will burst out from the “Nine Springs” (''Jiu quan'') down below. It sounds like the very complicated and very capricious hot water pipe system in the apartment building has lost its temper. Even if we do not provoke it, the God of thunder still makes its power felt at any moment.<br />
<br />
在其题为“公寓生活中的有趣时刻”的文章中，张描绘了一种空间构造，它是新城市角色形成的背景：<br />
<br />
我会顺风而行，回到那里，<br />
但要担心那些大理石圆顶和玉廊<br />
这么高的地方，冷得难以忍受……<br />
<br />
阅读这些内容后，居住在公寓楼顶上的居民或多或少会因恐惧而颤抖。公寓越高，温度越低。自从煤炭价格飞涨以来，公寓中的制热器成了纯粹的装饰。为了完善浴室设计，热水龙头上的“ H”是必不可少的。但是，如果错误地打开热水龙头，则会从下方的“九座泉水”（“九泉”）处爆发出空荡却剧烈的隆隆声。听起来公寓大楼中非常复杂且反复无常的热水管道系统已经失去了活力。即使我们不激怒它，雷电之神仍然随时都能展现力量。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:39, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Out of nowhere, it can set off a long and evil buzz followed by two blasting sounds, as if an airplane was circling above for a while and then dropped two bombs. Having been terror-stricken in wartime Hong Kong, this kind of noise would always make me panic when I first returned to Shanghai. At first the pipe was still working conscientiously; in much difficulty, it would carry some hot water all the way up to the sixth floor, accompanied by a gurgling sound. That was still acceptable, but now it is like deafening thunder followed only by drizzle, and worse yet, all we get are just two droplets of yellow rusty mud. But I dare not complain anymore; the unemployed can easily fly into a rage.<br />
<br />
What is most striking in this beginning episode of Chang’s essay is how the experience of the everyday is depicted as parallel to that of war. War makes its metaphorical presence in daily life of an apartment dweller, serving as a trope for the erratic rhythm of an urban life style. Chang’s depiction of the texture of an apartment life then can be read as a parable of war.<br />
<br />
无缘无故，只听见不怀好意的"嗡……"拉长了半晌之后接着"訇訇"两声，活像飞机在顶上盘旋了一会，掷了两枚炸弹。在战时香港吓细了胆子的我，初回上海的时候，每每为之魂飞魄散。若是当初它认真工作的时候，艰辛地将热水运到六层楼上来，便是咕噜两声，也还情有可原。现在可是雷声大，雨点小，难得滴下两滴生锈的黄浆……然而也说不得了，失业的人向来是肝火旺的。<br />
<br />
这是张爱玲散文开头的一段，其中最令人吃惊的是作者将日常经历与战争并举。战争在公寓住户的日常生活中是一个隐喻性的存在，喻指城市生活节奏的飘忽不定。于是我们可以将张爱玲对公寓生活的描写解读成对战争的比喻。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 10:19, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
无缘无故，只听见不怀好意的"嗡……"拉长了半晌之后接着"訇訇"两声，活像飞机在顶上盘旋了一会，掷了两枚炸弹。在战时香港吓细了胆子的我，初回上海的时候，每每为之魂飞魄散。若是当初它认真工作的时候，艰辛地将热水运到六层楼上来，便是咕噜两声，也还情有可原。现在可是雷声大，雨点小，难得滴下两滴生锈的黄浆……但我不敢再抱怨了，失业者很容易发怒。<br />
<br />
这是张爱玲散文开头的一段，最引人注目的是如何将日常生活中的经历描绘成与战争的类似。战争在公寓住户的日常生活中是一个隐喻性的存在，喻指城市生活节奏的飘忽不定。于是我们可以将张爱玲对公寓生活的描写解读成对战争的比喻。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
This opening episode makes references to several archetypal war themes, including death (as in the reference to the “nine springs” or Jiu quan), the scarcity of necessities in life (such as the mentioning of high price of coal and deficiency of hot water in the apartment), and the threat of air-raid (as suggested by the narrator’s haunted memory from her years living in wartime Hong Kong). Themes of unemployment, social unrest, and economic instability are also represented in Chang’s depiction of an animated world where one’s private space is constantly intruded by outside forces. The author has invented a new sense of interiority in her attempt to come to terms with the topography of urban life during wartime. The essay gives textual testimonies to two most important categories of experience in occupied Shanghai – the urban and the war; and these two categories converge precisely within the constructed space of a modern apartment.<br />
<br />
<br />
这一开篇提到了几个典型的战争主题，包括死亡(比如提到了九泉或酒泉)，生活必需品的匮乏(比如提到了高昂的煤价和公寓里的热水短缺)，以及空袭的威胁(从叙述者对战时香港生活的挥之不去的回忆中可以看出)。失业、社会动荡、经济不稳定等主题也在张笔下描绘了一个充满活力的世界，一个人的私人空间不断受到外部势力的侵扰。作者创造了一种新的内在感，试图与战时城市生活的地形达成妥协。本文对被占领的上海的两种最重要的体验类型--城市体验和战争体验进行了考证，这两类体验恰好在现代公寓的建造空间中交汇在一起。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:40, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
这一开篇提到了几个典型的战争主题，包括死亡(比如提到了九泉或酒泉)，生活必需品的匮乏(比如提到了高昂的煤价和公寓里的热水短缺)，以及空袭的威胁(从叙述者对战时香港生活的挥之不去的回忆中可以看出)。失业、社会动荡、经济不稳定等主题也出现在张所描述的一个栩栩如生的世界里，在这个世界，私人空间不断受到外部势力的侵扰。作者在试图参照战时城市生活的地形的过程中，对（室）内部（设计）产生了新的想法。本文对被占领时上海的两种最重要的体验类型--城市体验和战争体验进行了考证，这两类体验恰好融合进了现代公寓的建造空间中。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the society-wide promotion of the two women and the women’s attempt in self-fashioning. Su and Chang were often showcased together with famous singers, dancers, and movie actresses at the time. See, for instance, ”Cui Chengxi wudao zuotan” (A Roundtable Discussion of Cui Chengxi’s Dance), where women writers were presented together with the Korean Dancer Cui Chengxi and a Chinese dancer named Wang Yuan. Published in ''The Miscellany Monthly'' 12. 2 (November, 1943). Another example is ”Nalianghui ji” (A Summer Gathering), where Eileen Chang was showcased together with the singer/movie actress Li Xianglan. In The ''Miscellany Monthly'' 15. 5 (August, 1945).<br />
<br />
Originally published in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly'' 3 (December, 1943).<br />
<br />
These are the lines in the Song dynasty poet Su Shi’s famous song lyric written to the tune ”Shuidiao getou” (Song for the Water Tune).<br />
<br />
第二章讨论了这两个女人在全社会的推广以及她们在自我塑造方面的尝试。当时，苏和张经常与著名歌手、舞者和电影女演员一起表演。例如，在“崔承熙舞蹈座谈”(关于崔承熙舞蹈的圆桌讨论)中，女性作家与韩国舞蹈家崔承熙和中国舞蹈家王原一起出现。刊登在《每月杂文》12.2(1943年11月)。另一个例子是“纳凉会”(夏季聚会)，张爱玲和歌手兼电影演员李香兰一起展示在《每月杂文》15.5(1945年8月)。<br />
原刊于《天地月刊》第3期(1943年12月)。<br />
这些诗句是宋代诗人苏轼在著名的词作中写的“水调歌头”(Song for the Water tune)。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:24, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第二章讨论了这两个女人在全社会的推广以及她们在自我塑造方面的尝试。当时，苏和张经常与著名歌手、舞者和电影女演员一起表演。例如，在“崔承熙舞蹈座谈”(关于崔承熙舞蹈的圆桌讨论)中，女性作家与韩国舞蹈家崔承熙和中国舞蹈家王原一起出现。发表在《每月杂文》12.2(1943年11月)。另一个例子是“纳凉会”(夏季聚会)，张爱玲和歌手兼电影演员李香兰一起出现在《每月杂文》15.5(1945年8月)。<br />
原刊是在《天地月刊》第3期(1943年12月)。<br />
这些诗句是宋代诗人苏轼在著名的抒情词作中写的“水调歌头”(Song for the Water tune)。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:04, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
This is the first time in the history of modern Chinese literature that the literary world of a woman author is so tenaciously associated with an urban life style characterized by routines in and out of a modern apartment. In other words, the spatial specificities of a modern apartment are essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime in Eileen Chang’s writing. City offers many transitional territories such as hotels, stations, theaters, and cafes, which are spaces beyond the rigid categorization of inside or outside, private or public. In Chang’s writing, the space of an apartment is presented as such a transitional site. It is a self-contained private space, which enables a city dweller to escape the intensity of life outside the apartment when necessary. But more importantly, an apartment is also a locus point from which one can enter into various aspects of urban culture.<br />
<br />
这是现代中国文学史上的第一次，女性作家的文学世界与城市生活如此顽强地联系在一起，这种生活以现代公寓的出现和消失为特征。 换句话说，张爱玲（Eileen Chang）的作品中，现代公寓的空间特色对于构建战时生活观至关重要。 城市提供了许多过渡区域，例如旅馆，车站，剧院和咖啡馆，这些区域超出了对内部或外部，私人或公共场所的严格分类。 在张的著作中，公寓的空间就是这样一个过渡场所。 它是一个独立的私人空间，使城市居民在必要时可以逃离公寓外的生活。 但更重要的是，公寓也是人们进入城市文化各个方面的起点。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:09, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个女作家的文学世界和与一种城市生活方式牢固的联结在一起，这种生活方式一现代公寓的日常生活为特征，这在现代中国文学史上是第一次。换句话说，在张爱玲的作品中，现代公寓的空间特异性对于战时生活愿景的构建至关重要。城市提供了许多过渡性区域比如旅馆，车站，剧院和咖啡厅，这些区域不适用于对内部或外部，私人或公共场所的严格分类。在张的著作中，公寓的空间就是这样的过渡性场所。它是一个独立的私人空间，在必要的时候，可以是一个城市居民逃离公寓外那个世界的紧张生活。但更为重要的是，公寓也是人们能够融入城市文化的各个方面的起点。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 13:46, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
For Eileen Chang, who, between 1942 and 1945, spent most of her time in a flat on the top floor of a six-story apartment building not too far away from the Jing’an Temple, the modern interior space is like a picture frame, encircling the nights and days of an urban dweller who constantly looks out, from her own apartment windows, that is, a new vantage point, at the kaleidoscopic world of metropolitan Shanghai. Living in an apartment seems to have changed ways of seeing, hearing, smelling, and feeling: not only the cityscape is presented differently – now from a new height (the windows of an apartment on the sixth floor), even sounds in the city become more vivid with the elevation of height:<br />
<br />
I am often amazed at how street noises can be heard so clearly from the sixth floor, as if it was all happening right beneath one’s ears. The older we get, the farther we are separated from our childhood, and yet the memories of it and its many trivial details have gradually become more sweet and vivid.<br />
<br />
对于张爱玲（1942年至1945年之间）大部分时间都花在离静安寺不太远的六层公寓楼顶楼的公寓里，现代室内空间就像一幅画框围绕着一个城市居民的夜晚和白天，她不断从自己的公寓窗户向外看，这是一个新的视角，俯瞰着大都市上海的万花筒.居住在公寓中似乎已经改变了看，听，闻和感觉的方式：不仅城市景观的呈现方式有所不同-现在从一个新的高度（六层公寓的窗户）开始，甚至城市中的声音也变得不同.随着高度的升高更加生动：<br />
我常常惊讶于如何从六楼清晰地听到街道的声音，好像所有声音都发生在人的耳朵下一样.我们年龄越大，我们与童年的距离就越远，但是对它的记忆及其许多琐碎的细节却逐渐变得更加甜美生动.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:35, 6 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:35, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Just like our present bears imprints of the past, an interior space is constantly permeated and reshaped by the every-changing outside world. This is a world (un)marked by blurred boundaries; liminality characterizes one’s own positioning within such an obscure realm. And yet senses simply become more acute, and thoughts are given fresh new patterns. Here, we are witnessing the formation a new metaphysics of the everyday:<br />
<br />
I like to listen to street sounds. Those who have more refined taste would rest on their pillows and listen to wind whistling in a pine grove or the roar of ocean waves. But it is the sound of a trolley that I must hear in order to fall asleep. On the hills in Hong Kong, only in winter when the north wind blew on the evergreens all night would it remind me of the charming sound of a trolley. People who have lived in an exciting city for many years do not realize what they must have in life until they have left the place. The thoughts of a city dweller are set against a curtain of striped pattern; the light-colored stripes are running trolleys. Like neatly paralleled currents of sounds, they continuously flow into our subconscious. <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
For Eileen Chang, an apartment is truly the center of urban life. Like a train station, it serves as an initial starting point, always ready to transport one’s senses into many different directions. Chang’s aesthetics of life is then attributed with a concrete spatial form that is deeply rooted in the soil of the everyday of wartime. If the production of popular journals in occupied Shanghai symbolizes the shaping of an imagined space, the modern apartment is another important site on the mental map of a city under siege. The aggression of wartime occupation has disrupted cycles of life, routines in and out of one’s own home, but new urban spaces and experiences were also created. Here the presence of war intensifies one’s experience of the urban, crystallized in the shaping of a particular spatial form, that is, the modern apartment.<br />
<br />
对于张爱玲来说，公寓才是真正的城市生活中心。就像火车站一样，它作为一个起点，随时准备着把人的感官带到不同的方向。张爱玲的生活美学赋予了一种具体的空间形式，这种空间形式深深扎根于战时日常生活中。如果说沦陷的上海流行期刊的出版象征着一个想象空间的塑造，那么现代公寓则是围困城市心理地图的另一个重要场所。战时的侵略打乱了人们的生活圈，以及一切日常生活，但也创造了新的城市空间和体验。在这里，战争的存在强化了人们对城市的体验，形成了一种特殊的空间形态，即现代公寓。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对张爱玲而言，公寓确实是城市生活的中心。它就像火车站，作为起点时刻准备将人的感官送往不同的方向。张爱玲的生活美学于是被赋予了具体的空间形式，它深植与战时日常的土壤之中。如果说流行刊物在上海占领区的出版象征着一个想象空间的形成，那么现代公寓则是处于封锁之下的城市的心理地图上的另一个重要的场所。战时占领的侵略性扰乱了生活圈打乱了人们归家和离家的惯例，但新的城市空间和经历也随之创造出来。战争于此加强了人们对城市的体验。这样的体验正是在公寓这一特殊空间的形成中确定的。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:02, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对张爱玲来说，公寓是真正的城市生活中心。 就像火车站一样，它是一个最初的起点，随时可以将人的感官带入许多不同的方向。 张爱玲的生活美学就被归结为一种具体的空间形式，深深扎根于战时日常的土壤中。 如果说在被占领的上海，通俗期刊的生产象征着一种想象空间的塑造，那么现代公寓则是一个被围困的城市精神地图上的另一个重要场所。 战时占领的侵略性打乱了人们的生活周期，打乱了人们出入自己家的例行公事，但新的城市空间和经验也被创造出来。 在这里，战争的存在强化了人们对城市的体验，具体体现在一种特殊空间形式的塑造上，即现代公寓。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:20, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
Many feminist scholars have suggested the importance of studying spatial constructions. They argue that by giving the inner world a form of concreteness, spatial symbols in literature are most illuminating in showing how personal experience intersects with specific cultural categories. The study of spatial construction is then important since it is the key point in understanding women’s literature: space often serves as a vehicle by which the female protagonists attempt to launch a journey of self-discovery, which constitutes the most important part of the female experience. See, for instance, Jessica Benjamin, ”A Desire of One’s Own: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Intersubjective Space,” in ''Feminist Studies/Critical Studies'', edited by Teresa de Lauretis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).<br />
<br />
For a discussion of other kinds of spatial constructions in 1940s Shanghai, see Wei Shaochang, ”Jiu Shanghai de tingzijian” (The Garret in Old Shanghai), published in ''Haishang wentan'' (March, 1994). Also see a photographic history in Tang Zhenchang, ed., ''Jindai Shanghai fanhua lu'' (Modern Shanghai: The Splendor) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan 1993.)<br />
<br />
In ”Interesting Moments in Apartment Life.”<br />
<br />
Ibid.<br />
<br />
See Nicole Huang, ''Written In the Ruins''.<br />
<br />
<br />
许多女性学者提到了研究空间构造的重要性。她们认为通过给予内心世界一种具体形式，文学上的空间符号最能说明个人经验如何和特定的文化范畴相交。关于空间结构的研究因此十分重要因为这是理解女性文学的关键点：空间常作为一种工具，通过这种工具，女性反抗主义者试图发起一场自我发现之旅，这构成了女性体验中最重要的一部分。例如，见杰西卡·本杰明，《个人的欲望：心理分析女性主义和主题空间》来自于女性研究/批判研究，由特丽莎·德·拉瑞缇斯编辑（布卢明顿：印第安纳大学出版社，1986）<br />
关于20世纪40年代其他关于空间构造的讨论，见魏绍昌《旧上海的亭子间》发表于海上文坛（1994年3月）。另见唐振昌主编的《近代上海繁华录》（香港：商务印书馆1993）摄影史。<br />
在《公寓生活的有趣瞬间》<br />
同上<br />
见黄妮可《写在废墟里》--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 00:50, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s vision, this spatial experience is also gendered. The image of an apartment dweller is gendered, and often female. “It seems like only women can fully understand the advantages of life in an apartment,” Chang writes, since the household duties in an apartment are much more simplified. Therefore, a woman can much better appreciate the numerous trivial details in life; she can even start to appreciate the gorgeous colors of fresh vegetables displayed at morning markets, and enjoy the pleasures of cooking and cleaning. Chang’s reinvention of these daily trips is most forcefully presented in one essay entitled “Zhongguo de riye” (China: Days and Nights). <br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (extended edition) (Shanghai: Shanhe tushu gongsi, 1946).（注释）<br />
<br />
在张爱玲看来，这种空间体验是有性别偏向的。公寓住户的形象也是有性别偏向的，而且通常指女性。张爱玲写道：“恐怕只有女人能够充分了解公寓生活的特殊优点”，因为公寓里的家务要简单许多。因此，女性可以更好地欣赏生活的鸡毛蒜皮；她甚至还可以欣赏早市新鲜蔬菜亮丽的颜色，享受做饭打扫房间的乐趣。张爱玲把这些日常小事再创造，有力地写在名为《中国的日夜》的散文中（中国：日日夜夜）。<br />
<br />
引自《传奇》（增订本）（上海：山河图书公司，1946）（注释）--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 07:20, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
张爱玲认为，这种空间体验也具有性别偏向。公寓居民的形象具有女性的性别偏向。张爱玲写道：“似乎只有女性才能充分理解公寓生活的多姿多彩，” 原因在于公寓的家务更加简化了，这使得女性可以更好地欣赏生活中许多琐碎的细节。比如她甚至可以开始欣赏早市上颜色鲜艳的新鲜蔬菜，并享受烹饪和打扫卫生的乐趣。在一篇名为《中国之日夜》的文章中，张爱玲重点重塑了对这些日常琐碎小事。<br />
<br />
引自《传奇》（增订本）（上海：山河图书公司，1946年）（注释）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s own account, morning errands to the vegetable market seem to be her own tour through the part of the city that she is most attached to. Every morning she would take the elevator down from her sixth floor apartment, emerge onto the awakening streets, mingle with the morning crowd, and progress toward the world of the magnificent colors of the early market. Daily routines are not just bound duties that confine the everyday experiences of women; instead, they become forms of life choreographed in accordance with the distinctive rhythm of the city. Women can finally look at them as opportunities to explore a life that is wider, brighter, and more open to a variety of new possibilities.<br />
在张女士自己的描述中，早上去菜市场的差事是她游览这所城市中最爱的部分。每天早晨，她都会从六楼的公寓乘电梯下楼，来到苏醒的街道上，融入早间的人群中，走向绚丽的早市世界里。日常事务不仅限于女性的日常经历，相反，它们变成了根据城市独特节奏精心编排的生活形式。女性最终可以把它们看作是探索更广阔、更光明，更开放的生活的机会。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 17:27, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Life in apartment is then presented with many layers in Chang’s essay writing. In “Daolu yi mu” (Views from the Streets), Eileen Chang also reminds the reader of the many levels of urban culture taking shape outside of the apartment, that is, on the streets. On one level, the street scene of Shanghai is most distinctively characterized by the window displays and neon lights on Avenue Joffre:<br />
<br />
Designing shop windows is a fascinating job, since there is motionless drama in each display. ……… [I remember] a mid-winter night four or five years ago when my cousin and I were strolling down the Avenue Joffre, looking at shop window displays. <br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Under neon lights, the slanted faces of those wooden beauties under slanted hats, with feathers slanting down from atop the hats. I did not wear western suits, had no need of a hat, and did not want to buy one. And yet I still looked at them with admiring eyes…… <br />
<br />
This fascination with window displays and neon lights is staged at a moment that belongs to the past – “four of five years ago.” At the present time within the essay, a different layer of images are highlighted. We see various street corners scattered in less prestigious neighborhoods of the metropolis. Chang’s impressionistic depiction of the city of Shanghai contains numerous crisscrosses of small lanes and faces of ordinary people:<br />
<br />
”Views from the Streets,” in Heaven and Earth Monthly 4 (January, 1944). （注释）<br />
霓虹灯下，木美人倾斜的脸，倾斜的帽子，帽子上斜吊着的羽毛。我既不穿洋装，不会买帽子，也不想买，然而还是用欣羡的眼光看着......<br />
这种对橱窗和霓虹灯的迷恋属于过去—“四五年前”。在这篇文章中描绘了各种各样的景象。我们看到各种各样的街角散布在大都市不怎么有名的地方。张爱玲对上海这座城市的印象描绘包含了无数纵横交错的小巷子和普通人的面孔: “街景”，《天地》月刊第4期，(1944年1月)。（注释）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:23, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
There are many scenes on the streets that are worth another glance. At dusk, a rickshaw is parked by the roadside, a woman is leaning against the seat, a sack in her hand, some persimmons in the sack. The rickshaw man is squatting down on the ground, trying to light up an oil lamp. It is getting dark, and the lamp by the woman’s feet slowly brightens. <br />
<br />
Here, within the space of one essay, the images of a rickshaw man and a housewife on a small street are juxtaposed with the memory of two young women window-shopping on the extravagant Avenue Joffre. The subtle light of an oil lamp is placed against the bright and luring rats of neon signs.<br />
<br />
街道上有许多场景值得一看。 黄昏时，一辆人力车停在路边，一个女人靠在座位上，手里拿着一个麻袋，麻袋里放着一些柿子。 这辆人力车男子蹲在地上，试图点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女人脚旁的灯慢慢变亮。<br />
在这篇论文的空间中，在一条小街上，一辆黄包车男子和一名家庭主妇的影像并置在一起，以纪念两名年轻女子在奢侈的Joffre大街上逛街。油灯的微弱光线被放置在明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌上。<br />
大街上有许多景象值得一看。 黄昏时分，一辆黄包车停在路边，一位女士靠在座位上，手上的购物袋里装了一些柿子。 车夫蹲在地上，正点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女士脚旁的灯光慢慢亮了起来。<br />
在文章的这一场景中，小街上的车夫和家庭主妇与在霞飞大道逛街的两个年轻女郎形成了鲜明的对比。油灯微弱的灯光也和绚丽夺目的霓虹灯形成了对照。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 03:12, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
街上有许多的风景值得一看。黄昏时，一辆黄包车停在路边，一个女人正靠着椅子，手里拿着一个大袋子，袋子中装着些柿子。车夫蹲在地上试图点亮油灯。天要黑了，女人脚旁的油灯发出微弱的光芒<br />
这篇文章的空白处，车夫和家庭主妇在小街上的图画和对两个在奢华的艾佛尔大街无意购物的女人的记忆放置在一起。油灯散发出来的微弱的光芒与明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌形成对比。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:26, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
街上值得一看的正多着。黄昏的时候，路旁歇着人力车，一个女人斜欠坐在车上，手里换着网袋，袋里有柿子。车夫蹲在地下，点那盏油灯。天黑了，女人脚旁的灯渐渐亮了起来。<br />
在文章的这一场景中，小街上的人力车车夫和家庭女人与在奢华的霞飞路（淮海中路）上逛街的年轻女郎这两个情景重合。油灯微弱的光芒与明亮夺人的霓虹灯形成鲜明对比。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:03, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
And the warmth and intimacy of the present set off the coldness and vastness of a moment in the past. Here, even though there is no direct reference to the turbulent events taking place in the background of occupied Shanghai, we can nonetheless sense the presence of war in this contrast between the two time frames and the switch back and forth between different layers of urban space. Rapid movements, swift changes, drastic transformations, and the transience of a given moment, these themes of war are represented in a most subtle and yet vivid fashion.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
To carry the argument further, Chang’s sense of modernity has extended from a modernist high culture to a culture of wartime quotidian life. The author is more interested in representing the tension between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ surfacing in everyday routines of ordinary men and women in her city. The intrusion of war seems to have pushed the brilliance of Avenue Joffre back into one’s dusty memory. Here we can perceive how the experience of war and occupation has systematically changed the spatialization of modernity: modernity as a body of new urban sensibilities is now located somewhere between the grand avenue and the back alley.<br />
<br />
进一步说，张爱玲的现代性已经从现代主义的高等文化扩展到战时的日常生活文化。她更感兴趣的是表现在她的城市里普通男女日常生活中浮现的“旧”与“新”之间的张力。战争的入侵似乎把乔弗尔大道的辉煌推回到尘封的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和占领的经历是如何系统地改变现代性的空间化的:现代性作为一种新的城市情感体，现在位于大道和后街之间的某个地方。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的现代意识从现代主义的高级文化延伸到战时的平民生活文化。作者更感兴趣的是表现出她所在城市普通男女日常生活中出现的“旧”与“新”之间的紧张关系。战争的侵扰似乎把乔夫尔大街的辉煌重新推回到尘封已久的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和曾被占领的经历是如何系统地改变了现代性的空间化：现代性作为一个新的城市情感体，现在位于大街和后巷之间的某个地方。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
– '''Fashion talk''' – <br />
To illustrate how material imagination is essential to Chang’s aesthetics of the everyday, I will now turn to her conceptualization of fashion as an invented form of life. Chang’s discussions of fashion demonstrate her fascination with an inner vision. By depicting a world of light, brilliant colors, unique lines and shapes, Chang has also suggested that literary writing can be the beginning of a cultural history of things.<br />
<br />
In Chang’s fictional writing, colors, lines, surfaces, and words are often combined to form a network of intricate meanings. Her writing is known for its meticulous attention to details, particularly clothes.<br />
<br />
--时尚谈--<br />
<br />
为了说明物质想象力对张爱玲的日常美学的重要性，我现在要谈谈她将时尚概念化为一种自创的生活形式。张爱玲对时尚的看法显示了她对内在视觉的迷恋。通过描写一个光亮、绚丽、线条和形状独特的世界，她也提出文学写作可以成为事物文化史的开始。<br />
<br />
在张爱玲的小说创作中，色彩、线条、表面、文字往往组合成一个错综复杂的意义网络。她的写作以细致入微著称，尤其是主角的衣着打扮。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:10, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For instance, in her novella “Jinsuo ji” (Chronicle of Gilded Fetters), through the clothes of female servants, a portrait of this old-style family is introduced. Clothes with bright colors are set in contrast to neutral tones of modern fashion; the former becomes a symbol of the ‘past,’ which gradually recedes into the background, gorgeous, amorous, dazzling, but helplessly decaying. Temporality of fashion serves to punctuate narrative rhythm in Chang’s fictional writing.<br />
<br />
It is in Chang’s essay writing that a discourse of fashion is passionately elaborated. Chang’s most important essay on fashion is entitled “Gengyi ji” (A Chronicle of Changing Clothes), in which one hundred years of Chinese history is acted out in Chang’s dramatic display of clothes in movements.<br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (Romances) (Shanghai: Za¬zhishe, 1944).（注释）<br />
<br />
In Past and Present Bi-weekly 34 (December, 1943). Originally written in English and published in the English language journal XXth Century.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In this world, the transformation of modern clothes can be read as a history of mentality that centers on a constant redefinition of notions such as femaleness, female beauty, and female proper conducts:<br />
<br />
Men have more freedom in their life than women do. Yet I do not want to become a man, only because they do not have freedom [in having a variety of clothing]. <br />
<br />
Chang goes on to tease out the absurdity of gendered assumptions in cultural discourses:<br />
<br />
Clothes seem trivial and not worth mentioning. Liu Bei once said: “Brothers are [important to each other] like hands to feet whereas their wives and children are [insignificant] like clothes.” But for women, it is much easier to cherish their clothes than their husbands. <br />
<br />
From ”A Chronicle of Changing Clothes.”<br />
<br />
Back in the 1920s, Zhang Jingsheng already highlighted the significance of the changes of clothes/fashion, which, according to him, reflects and shapes the present state of mentalities. See Zhang’s 1925 book entitled Mei de renshengguan (An Outlook on a Life of Beauty) as quoted in Peng Hsiao-yen, ”Sexual Enlightenment: ‘Dr. Sex’ Zhang Jingsheng and May Fourth First-Person （注释）<br />
<br />
在这个世界上，现代服装的变革可以理解为一部关于精气神的历史，这部历史以女性气质、女性美、女性举止仪态等观念的不断重新定义为核心。<br />
<br />
男人在生活中比女人更加自由。然而我不想成为男人，只因为男人们没有[挑选各种服装]的自由。 <br />
<br />
张先生接着戏说文化话语中的性别假设的荒谬性。<br />
<br />
衣服似乎微不足道，不值得一提。 刘备曾说 "兄弟如手足，女人如衣服" 但对于女人来说，比起自己的丈夫，她们更易于珍爱自己的衣服。<br />
摘自《更衣记》。<br />
<br />
早在20世纪20年代，张竞生就已经强调了衣服/时装变化的意义，他认为，衣服/时装的变化反映以及塑造了当代社会的精神气。 参见张氏1925年出版的《美德重生观》一书，转引自彭孝严《性启蒙："性博士 "张竞生与五四第一人称》。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:15, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
There was a Western writer (is it Bernard Shaw?) who once complained that when most women chose their husbands, they were not nearly as attentive and cautious as when they were selecting a hat for themselves. The most heartless woman would lament passionately when she began to talk about “that silk gown I had last year.”<br />
<br />
Never mind whether it was Bernard Shaw or some other Western writer who made these bizarre comments about women’s apparent “lack” of judgment in choosing their own destinies and their partiality for clothes and other seemingly trivial accessories in life, for Eileen Chang, these male voices were all spelling out the similarly absurd and “ancient” logic by Liu Bei of the Three Kingdoms era (third century A.D.).<br />
<br />
Narrative Fiction.” For Zhang Jingsheng, clothes are the extension of a female body and therefore are crucial elements in exploring female sexuality and inner psyche. This may serve as a mediation to explain the fascination with the female clothed bodies expressed in Eileen Chang’s writing of the 1940s.（注释）<br />
<br />
For a discussion of the correlation between clothes, gender discourses, and performance culture during the first two decades of the century, see an essay by Zhou Huiling (Katharine Hui-ling Chou) entitled ”Nü yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, ‘xin nüxing’ lunshu: Wanqing dao Wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan” (Actresses, Realism, and Discourse of ”New Woman”: Gendered Performances in Modern Chinese Theater from Late Qing to the May Fourth), published in ''Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu'' (Studies of Women’s History of Modern China) 4 (August, 1996). Also see her dissertation entitled ''Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1919-1949'' (New York University, 1997).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
But the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” does much more than merely tease out the gendered categories embedded in fashion discourses. “We cannot really imagine the world of the past generations, so idle, so quiet, and so organized,” writes Eileen Chang, “during the three hundred years of Manchurian ruling of Qing dynasty, there was not even (jing) such a thing called women’s fashion!” The use of the adverb “jing” implies an astonishment: women did not even have fashion for three hundred years, and how could anyone have endured such a misfortune! The emphasis placed on women’s clothes seem to be a landmark that separates the modern era from the antiquated worlds.<br />
<br />
这篇文章《换衣纪事》不仅仅只是梳理出隐藏在时尚话语中的性别范畴。张爱玲写道：“我们无法想象过去几代人的世界，如此闲散，如此安静，如此井井有条，在清朝满洲统治的三百年里，竟连这样一个叫女装的东西都没有！副词“竟”，暗含着一种震惊：三百年来女人连时尚未曾有，怎么会有人能忍受这样的不幸！对女装的强调似乎是现代与过时世界的一个里程碑。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这篇文章《变化的服装编年史》(A Chronicle of Changing Clothes)所做的，远不止是梳理出嵌入时尚话语中的性别类别。张爱玲写道:“我们真的无法想象过去几代人的世界是如此闲适，如此安静，如此有条理。在清朝满洲统治的三百年里，甚至没有(竟)这样一种叫做女性时尚的东西!副词“惊”的使用暗示着一种惊讶:女性甚至三百年来都没有时尚，谁能忍受这样的不幸!对女性服装的重视似乎是区分现代和古老世界的一个里程碑。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:54, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From the point of view of Eileen Chang, the lack of changes in three hundred years of China’s fashion history forms a sharp contrast to the thirty or forty years of the most recent history which, for Chang, can be read as a fascinating narrative put together by rapidly shifting patterns of women’s fashion.<br />
<br />
Chang’s account then turns history into a stage presentation. Her impressionistic view of modern history highlights colors, lines, shapes, and moods, which are all crystallized in the changing faces of women’s clothes. Chang’s representation of modern history through the transformation of women’s clothes has the effect of a modern museum of human fantasies, or a gallery of artifacts constantly in motion. <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
History is turned into a fictional narrative. More interestingly, there is no real human being moving in this narrative; shapes, colors, lines, and circles occupy the space. Through a personification of clothes, Chang has created an animation effect in her world of changing fashion. Clothes replace human voices; clothes become language itself.<br />
<br />
In “Views from the Streets,” Eileen Chang also describes fashion display as “motionless drama,” a notion that highlights the correlation between literature, performance art, and material culture. By using the notion of drama as a trope, Eileen Chang has indicated that fashion, like forms of fictional narrative, is a dramatization of life, a life presented on stage. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
A fashion image is a frozen historical moment, that is, a close-up of a historical moment intersecting with moments in one’s personal history. The clothed body of a modern urban woman thereby carries the burden of history, as well as the marks of our present time.<br />
<br />
In his essay on fashion and modernity written back in 1904, Georg Simmel has already theorized the cultural and social significance of fashion in modern life. He views fashion as a signifier of modernity and a theatricalization of social transformations. For Simmel, fashion consciousness is vital to our conceptualization of the modern and the urban. <br />
<br />
Georg Simmel, ”Fashion” (1904), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, edited and with an introduction by Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 294-323.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Simmel’s essay on fashion should be read side by side with his another crucial essay written a year earlier in 1903 entitled “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the heightened level of sensory stimulation associated with the construction of modern metropolis. Fashion responds most directly and instantaneously to these changes. Following is a frequently quoted passage from “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the essence of modern life from a physiological as well as psychological perspective:<br />
<br />
The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.<br />
<br />
西美尔那篇关于时尚的文章应该和他在1903年写的另一篇重要的文章并列阅读，那篇文章题为《大都市与精神生活》，描述了随着现代大都市的建设而提高的感官刺激水平。时尚界对这些变化的反应是最直接和即时的。下面是《都市与心理生活》中经常引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质:<br />
都市个性赖以建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速、持续的转移而强化的情感生活。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
西美尔笔下关于时尚的文章应该与他在1903年写的另一篇重要文章《大都市与精神生活》相呼应，这篇文章描述了与现代大都市建设带来的强烈感官刺激。时尚第一时间捕捉到了这些变化并即时跟上它的步伐。以下是《大都市与精神生活》中经常被引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质。<br />
大都会的个性所建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速和持续变化而导致的情感生活的强化。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:30, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Man is a creature whose existence is dependent on differences, i.e., his mind is stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded. Lasting impressions, the slightness in their differences, the habituated regularity of their course and contrasts between them, consume, so to speak, less mental energy than the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli.<br />
人是一种离不开差异而存在的生物，人的思维会被现有的和那些以往存在的印象的不同所刺激。持续的印象之间，即使是细微的差异，他们之间的习惯性规律和对立消耗的精神能量少于捕捉那些仅仅一眼就能看出明显差别的快速变化的图像和突如其来的强大刺激。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:56, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
To the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions – with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life – it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life, and in the degree of awareness necessitated by our organization as creatures dependent on differences, a deep contrast with the slower, more habitual, more smoothly flowing rhythm of the sensory-mental phase of small town and rural existence. <br />
<br />
Simmel’s remarks can help illustrate how the discourse of fashion is situated at the center of Eileen Chang’s aesthetic vision. But Chang has gone well beyond Simmel. She incorporates urbanism, modernity, and femininity in her creation of fashion as a new cultural paradigm. <br />
<br />
See Simmel, ”The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, 325.（注释）<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，大都市创造了这些心理条件——每过一次街道，伴随着经济、职业和社会生活的节奏和多样性——它创造了精神生活的感官基础，以及我们组织作为依赖差异的生物所必需的意识程度与节奏较慢、习惯性较强、流畅流畅的节奏感形成鲜明对比的是小城镇和乡村的存在状态。<br />
<br />
西梅尔的这番话有助于说明张爱玲的美学视野是如何将时尚话语置于中心的。但张爱玲已经超越了西梅尔。她将都市主义、现代性和女性气质融入到她的时尚创作中，作为一种新的文化范式。<br />
<br />
参见西梅尔，“大都市与精神生活”（1903年），《论个性与社会形式：精选著作》，325。（注释）--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
The fact that the power of designing such a new paradigm is in the hands of a woman makes it even more unique for her time. More importantly, Chang’s fashion stories can also be read as parables of war. Designing fashion and then writing about fashion are her ways to come to terms with the world at war and the city under siege. In a world where nothing is fixed, and scenes of the present are swiftly disappearing at the very next moment, the ever-changing women’s fashion ironically becomes something that is most stable and lucid, something that can be held on to.<br />
<br />
经一位女性之手设计这样一个新的范式，它的力量让她的时代更加独特。更重要的是，张爱玲的时髦故事读来也可算是战争寓言。设计时尚再书写时尚，是她对这个处于战争中的世界和陷入包围的城市的妥协方式。在一个千变万化，眼前的景象稍纵即逝的世界里，具有讽刺意味的是，不停改变的女性时尚是最稳定、最清楚的，是可以把握的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:06, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以女性之手设计新式范例会使其在她的时代更具独特性。更重要的是，张爱玲的时尚故事可以解读为战争格言。设计时尚、描述时尚是她对于交战状态中的世界和围困中的城市的妥协。处于一个动荡的世界中，当前的场景会在下一秒迅速地消失，很讽刺的是，不断变化的女性时尚成为了最稳定和最透明，以及可以坚持的东西。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s account of wartime Hong Kong in an essay entitled “Jinyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes), she describes individual attentions to details of clothes at a critical moment when one’s own life can be smashed to pieces in no time:<br />
In Hong Kong, when we first heard the news that the war had broken out, a girl classmate in my dormitory started panicking. “What am I going to do? I have nothing appropriate to wear!” she cried. Her family were wealthy overseas Chinese. She had a different wardrobe for every social occasion. From a dance party on a yacht to a formal dinner, she was always sufficiently equipped. But she never imagined that there would be a war.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在其《烬余录》中对战时香港的记述中，她对个人服装的细节上这样描写使人对生活幻灭的重要时刻：在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发的新闻之时，我宿舍的一位女同学开始恐慌起来。“我该做什么？我没有合适的穿的衣服！”她哭着说。她的家人都远在海外。在各个社交场合她都有不同的服装搭配。从游艇上的舞会到正式的晚宴，她总是准备有充足的衣着。但她却从未想过这里会爆发战争。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:21, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《烬余录》中讲述战时的香港时描绘到，一个人在性命攸关的时刻竟会对自己的服饰百般注意：<br />
在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发这个消息时，我宿舍的一个女同学开始慌张。她喊道，“我该怎么办？我都没有合适的衣服穿！”她们一家是富裕的华侨。她在不同的社交场合都有自己的服饰搭配，从游艇上的舞会到一场正式的晚宴，她的服装满满当当的。但她从没想过战争会爆发。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
She finally managed to get hold of a big black quilted jacket which probably would not attract any attention from the air force circling above. When it was time to flee we all went our separate ways. I saw her again when the war was over. She cut her hair short in the masculine Filipino style – the trend in Hong Kong at the time because a woman with that hair style could pass for a man. <br />
<br />
她终于弄到了一件黑色夹克，这件夹克可能不会引起在上空盘旋的空军的注意。逃命时我们分道扬镳了。战争结束后我又见到她了。她把头发剪成了男式的发型——当时这种发型在香港比较时髦，因为拥有此发型的女人可以替代男人。<br />
<br />
Indeed our different responses to the war are reflected in our choice of clothes. Take Suleika for example. A beauty from a remote town on the Malay peninsula, she was petite and dark, with dreamy eyes and slightly protruding teeth.<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对战争的不同反应体现在我们对衣服的选择上。例如苏莱卡，一位来自马来半岛偏僻小镇的美女。她娇小黝黑，有着梦幻般的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:51, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对于战争的不同反应体现在我们对服装的选择上。比如苏莱卡，一位来自马来西亚偏僻小镇的妙龄女子，她身材娇小，皮肤黝黑，有着闪闪发光的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 00:35, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Like most girls who had a convent education, she was naive to an embarrassing degree. She chose to major in medicine, which means that she had to learn to dissect human bodies. But did the corpses have clothes on or not? The question bothered her, so she was asking people about it. This had become quite a joke around our school. <br />
<br />
A bomb landed next to our dorm, so the warden had to convince us to flee down the hill. Even in such emergency, Suleika did not forget to pack up her most lavish clothes. Against the well meaning advice of many wise people, she somehow managed to transport, in the midst of the gunfire, a big heavy leather trunk of clothes down the hill.<br />
<br />
她和大多数接受过修道院教育的女孩儿一样，天真无邪，却令人尴尬。她选择学医，这就意味着她必须学习解刨人体。但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这个问题困扰着她，于是她就一直问别人。这在我们学校成了一个大笑话。<br />
<br />
一颗炸弹落到了我们宿舍旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝我们逃下山去。苏来卡即使在这种紧急情况下也没有忘记收拾带走她那些最奢侈的衣服。她不顾许多聪明人的善意劝告，仍设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:23, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
像大多数在修道院学习的女孩一样，她天真无邪，却又令人觉得有一丝尴尬。 她选择了医学专业，这意味着她必须学习解剖人体。 但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这是个困扰着她的难题，所以她一直向他人请教，以至于这已经成为我们学校的一个笑话。<br />
<br />
一枚炸弹降落在我们宿舍的旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝服我们逃下山去。即使在这样的紧急情况下，苏莱卡也没有忘记打包带走自己最奢华的衣服，完全不顾智者们的善意建议，仍然想法设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:56, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Suleika then joined the defense force, working as a substitute nurse for the Red Cross. She was often seen squatting on the ground, hacking firewood to light up a fire, wearing her copper red and dark green silk gown embroidered with the character “shou” (longevity). What a waste, but for her it was all worth it. This smart outfit endowed her with an unprecedented confidence; without that she would not have blended so well with her male colleagues. …… <br />
<br />
Here, Chang’s war stories are interwoven with talks of fashion.<br />
<br />
“Stories from the Ashes,” in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly 5'' (February, 1944).<br />
<br />
随后，苏蕾卡加入了国防部队，成为红十字会的替补护士。人们经常看到她蹲在地上，劈柴生火，穿着绣有“寿”字的铜红和墨绿色丝袍。多么浪费时间，但对她来说，这一切都是值得的。这套漂亮的服装赋予了她前所未有的自信;如果没有这些，她就不可能和男同事相处得这么好。……<br />
<br />
在这里，张彤彤在战争中发生的故事与时尚话题交织在一起。<br />
<br />
“灰烬的故事”，摘自《天地月刊5》(1944年2月)。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 13:37, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Fashion is no longer a form of creative life that only occupies the space of leisure; rather, it becomes an essential medium through which an individual could finally comprehend the world that is otherwise incomprehensible, name the surroundings that are otherwise unnamable, and determine her own gender and ethnic identities that are otherwise indeterminate.<br />
<br />
The ending of the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” also consists of a parable:<br />
<br />
……an autumnal chill in approaching dusk as vendors at a vegetable market prepare to pack up and go home. Fish scraps and pale green corn husks litter the ground.<br />
<br />
<br />
时尚不再是一种只占休闲空间的创意生活形式。 相反，它成为一种基本的媒介，个人可以通过该媒介最终理解原本无法理解的世界，为原本无法命名的环境命名，并确定本来无法确定的性别和种族身份。<br />
<br />
《更衣记》这篇文章的结尾也包含了一个寓言:<br />
<br />
......在临近黄昏的秋意中，蔬菜市场的小贩们准备打包回家。地上散落着鱼屑和浅绿色的玉米皮。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
时尚不再是一种只占休闲空间的创意生活形式。相反，它成为了一种基本的媒介，个人可以通过该媒介最终理解原本无法理解的世界，命名原本无法命名的环境，并确定本来无法确定的性别和种族身份。<br />
《更衣记》这篇文章的结尾也包含了一个寓言故事:<br />
......在临近黄昏，寒意袭人的秋天，菜市场的小贩们准备收拾整理好回家。鱼屑和浅绿色的玉米皮被随意丢弃在地上。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 06:20, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
A child dashes over on his bike just to show off. He gives out a shout, lets go of the handlebars, and shoots away effortlessly, swaying back and forth all the while. At that split second, everyone on the street watches him with an indefinable admiration. Perhaps in this life that moment of letting go is the very loveliest? <br />
<br />
This scene seems detached from Chang’s detailed descriptions of the transformation of fashion trends, but it can be read a parable of how fashion actually functions in everyday life. It is exactly that moment of “letting go,” that is, the moment that one gains the power and freedom to go beyond immediate material and political conditions, that captures the essence of fashion in Chang’s world.<br />
<br />
Translated by Andrew F. Jones.（注释）<br />
<br />
一个孩子骑着自行车神气地飞奔过来。他空喊了一声，双手一下松开了车把，任自行车肆意地向前冲，不断地来回摇摆。此刻，街上的人都用一种说不出的羡慕的眼神看着他。也许在这一生中，那一瞬间的放手是最可爱的？ 这一幕似乎脱离了张国荣对时尚潮流转变的描述，但却可以读出时尚在日常生活中的实际作用。恰恰是那种 "放手 "的时刻，也就是获得超越眼前物质和政治条件的力量和自由的时刻，抓住了张国荣世界中时尚的本质。 译者：安德鲁 F. 吉恩斯（注释）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:55, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
一个小孩骑着自行车冲过来，只是为了炫耀一下自己。他大叫一声，放开车把，然后毫不费力地甩了出去，一路上来回摇晃着。在那一刹那，街上的每个人都带着一种难以形容的钦佩注视着他。也许在这一生中放手的那一刻是最可爱的? <br />
<br />
这一幕似乎脱离了张国荣对时尚潮流转变的描述，但却可以读出时尚在日常生活中的实际作用。恰恰是那种 "放手 "的时刻，也就是获得超越眼前物质和政治条件的力量和自由的时刻，抓住了张国荣世界中时尚的本质。 译者：安德鲁 F. 吉恩斯（注释）--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:59, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Here the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for women writers in their entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, women writers as individuals can become concrete historical subjects within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为了女性作家进入文学世界的一个开放的、持续的过程，也成为了一个试验场，在这里，文坛和更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化。不仅生活方式可以被当成文章阅读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众的界限进一步模糊，传记性的偶发事件成为构筑新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为女作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放性的持续过程，也成为一个试验场，在这个试验场中文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定，并且不断变化。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，作为个体的女作家也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公共的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:28, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
'''Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay'''<br />
<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children'''<br />
<br />
''Daniel A. Fried''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
All genres contain political possibilities, but the essay seems entitled to a particularly strong claim on politics. In the Chinese modernist context, it should be clear that one cannot understand the development of nationalism without reference to the huge body of political essays published in decades of periodicals, and equally clear that one must take stock of nationalist writings in trying to understand the generic qualities of the essay. And within our international scholarly dialogue, it seems necessary to locate the modern Chinese essay with regard to the various postulates of postcolonial theory.<br />
<br />
“论文中的意识形态观点”<br />
<br />
“朱自清，弗朗茨·法农，和凶猛的白人孩子”<br />
<br />
“丹尼尔A.弗里德”<br />
<br />
“概要”<br />
<br />
所有体裁都包含政治可能性，但这篇文章似乎有权对政治提出特别强烈的主张。在中国现代主义环境中，我们应该清楚地看到，如果不参考几十年期刊上发表的大量政治文章，就无法理解民族主义的发展；同样，我们必须审视民族主义作品，试图理解这篇文章的共性。在我们的国际学术对话中，似乎有必要根据有关后殖民理论的各种假设来定位中国现代散文.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 11:25, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
This is not easy--the relation of Chinese materials to theory has of course been debated at length, with wide disagreements over the applicability of the standard models.Indeed, the applicability of postcolonialism to several literatures has been questioned as critiques of essentialized difference have been turned against the general conclusions of postcolonial discourse itself.While theoretical contextualization of Chinese political essays seems necessary, there is no critical consensus on what theories to apply.<br />
<br />
这并不容易——毋庸置疑，中国作品与理论的关系长期备受争议，在标准模型的适用性上存在广泛的分歧。的确，后殖民主义在一些文学作品中的适用性已经受到质疑，因为对本质差异的批判已经转向反对后殖民语篇的一般结论。尽管中国政论文的理论语境化似乎是必要的，但在应用何种理论上却没有出现批判性的共识。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper will attempt to contextualize by ignoring the oversimplified question of whether postcolonial theory is or is not applicable to Chinese modernist essays.<br />
<br />
本文试图将后殖民理论是否适用于中国现代主义随笔这一过于简单化的问题置于语境中。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Instead, it seeks to perform a case study in theoretical analysis of a Chinese essay which goes beyond the simple importation of “foreign” theory, to suggest the outlines of dialogue between scholars of Chinese and other anticolonial nationalisms. Specifically, it compares Zhu Ziqing's experience of a white childs gaze in the essay, “White People--God's Proud Children!” to a similar experience of Frantz Fanon recorded in his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''. Using the theme of the racial others gaze as a methodological allegory, it seeks to show how these two texts can be made to “gaze” at each other, to inform each other in ways which are theoretically suggestive while respecting local difference.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
While Zhus essay seems in many ways to perfectly invoke the most familiar tropes of “Western” theory, Zhu's reaction to the gaze is ultimately opposite to Fanon's, and demonstrates how anticolonial writing is enmeshed both in internationa lpsychological constants and local historical variables.<br />
<br />
Scholarly investigation of the modern Chinese essay as a genre demands some attention to the questions posed by postcolonial theories. The same could be said of all genres of the period, but the essay has a special claim on postcolonialism. All genres were used politically, but the essay was usually seen in high modern China as the prime vehicle for explicit politics, the forum best suited for debate and rebuttal, and explication of specific political programs.<br />
<br />
虽然朱自清的文章似乎在很多方面都完美地引用了 "西方"理论中最熟悉的典故，但他对目光的反应却与法农截然相反，并展示了反殖民主义写作是如何被国际心理学常态和地方历史变数所困扰的。<br />
<br />
中国现代散文是一种文体，对它进行学术研究需要对后殖民主义理论提出的问题给予关注，可以说这个时期所有文体的学术研究都需要这么做，但散文对后殖民主义有着特殊的诉求。所有的文体都服务于政治，但在近代中国，散文通常被视为明确政治的首要载体，是最适合辩论和反驳、阐释具体政治方案的场所。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:44, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Of course, there is no scholarly consensus in the field as to the extent to which postcolonial theories can or cannot be applied to modern Chinese literature. For example, Rey Chow in her 1993 ''Writing Diaspora'' produced a well-known critique of the resistance to theory by scholars of Chinese literature, arguing that the claims of untheorizable Chinese particularity are merely reintroductions of an old Orientalist cultural essentialism. Last year, Leo Lee concluded his study of Shanghai urban culture by restating the very same arguments which Chow had dismissed, making the case that theory based on native internalization of the Western “othering” gaze was not directly applicable because the Western imperialist presence in China, even in the Shanghai concession zones, never gained the colonialist control over language and education that produced such psychic disruptions in other societies. <br />
<br />
Rey Chow, ''Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies''. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）<br />
<br />
<br />
当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对古老的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，结束了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，哪怕是在上海租界，西方帝国主义的存在从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，而这种控制在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:57, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学研究学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对老式的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，总结了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，哪怕是在上海租界，西方帝国主义从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，然而这种控制却在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。<br />
Rey Chow，Writing Diaspora：Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:15, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
We must stutter out some engagement with postcolonial theory, but how can one proceed without the safety of scholarly consensus? One could dive into polemics, but a decision that either theory is or isn't always applicable to Chinese literature assumes the existence of twin essentialized monoliths called “theory” and “Chinese literature.” We need more nuanced approaches. In fact, the terms of mainline postcolonial theory do furnish the conceptual tools with which one can derive one such approach. The very familiar discussions of the gaze of the imperial subject toward the colonized other can be employed as a metaphor for our own predicament.<br />
<br />
我们必须提到后殖民理论，但没有学术共识作为保障，如何进行？我们可以潜入论战，但关于理论是否始终适用于中国文学的决定假定了 "理论 "和 "中国文学 "这两个本质化的单体的存在。我们需要更细致的方法。事实上，主流后殖民主义理论的术语确实提供了概念工具，人们可以用这些工具推导出这样一种方法。我们非常熟悉的关于帝国主体对被殖民地关注的讨论，可以作为我们自身困境的隐喻。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
One of the major variations on this theme, deriving from the writings of Frantz Fanon, should be familiar: by their imperial gaze, aggressor cultures try to lock their colonized subjects into a perpetual Otherdom, with the aggressor National Subject claiming for itself a transcendent metaphysical Selfhood; colonized individuals must view themselves as Other and therefore are alienated from themselves. The solutions the discourse has found are ways in which those individuals can subvert that Otherdom in order to reclaim for themselves a new or reconstituted Selfhood. The goal is not to fall into nativist atavism and rejection of the metropole, but to eliminate dominance and blur the margins of identity, allowing a more healthful parity in the identification dialectic between colonizer and colonized.<br />
弗朗兹·法农的作品中产生了这一主题的主要变题之一，大家应该对此都很熟悉：在帝国主义的视角下，侵略者文化尝试将殖民对象封锁进永恒的他者国度，只有侵略国家自称为超验的形而上学的自我：被殖民的人必须把自己当做他者因此只能异化。对于这一问题找到的答案便是通过推翻他者国度从而为自己重建一个自我。目的不在于陷入本土主义者的返祖主义，拒绝城市，而是削弱统治，使身份边界模糊化，让殖民者和被殖民者在身份的辩证识别上有更健康的对等。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
If it is a common complaint that postcolonial theory is a creation of the metropole which should not be allowed to dominate local Chinese historical experience, the solution should not be nativist assertion of Chinese difference and superiority, with consequent ignoring of the varied experiences of imperialism from which the systems of theory have been derived. Rather, once we reject the notion that metropolitan theory has an omniscient gaze which alone possesses the right to define the meaning of Chinese texts, we are free to see how Chinese and non-Chinese experiences of imperialism can inform each other, through their mutual attractions and tensions which complicate questions of identity.<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍认为后殖民理论是大都市的创造，不应让其支配中国本土的历史经验，那么解决办法就不应是本土主义武断地主张中国的差异和优越性，一直忽视理论体系是从帝国主义的各种经验是衍生出来的。相反，一旦我们拒绝了大都市理论无所不能、只有它才有权定义中文文本的含义的观点，我们就可以自由地看到，中国和非中国的帝国主义经历是如何通过它们的相互吸引和紧张关系——这使身份问题复杂化——相互交流。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:39, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍抱怨后殖民主义理论是大都会的产物，且不应允许它主导中国本土的历史经验，那么，解决的办法就不应是本土主义地宣称中国人的差异性和优越性，从而忽视理论体系所衍生的各种帝国主义的经验。相反，一旦我们摒弃了大都会理论的全知角度，那就是它独自拥有定义中国文本意义的权利，我们就可以看到中国人和非中国人的帝国主义经验如何通过他们的相互吸引和紧张关系来相互交流，而这使认知问题变得复杂。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As an example of how to do this sort of theoretical application, I propose in this paper to compare Frantz Fanon's “The Fact of Blackness” (a chapter of his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''), with a little-known essay by Zhu Ziqing, “White People-God's Proud Children!” Both pieces focus on the narrators' experiences of meeting the gazes of white children, and thus invoke classic themes which allow easy access to theoretical considerations even in the midst of a particularistic analysis. And because both describe politicized experience, they avoid the old Orientalist dichotomy of Western theory vs. native experience. Both Fanon and Zhu are equally theoretical and experiential, and they inform each other.<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的例子，我在本文中拟将弗朗茨·法农的《黑的事实》（他的典籍《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一章）与朱自清的一篇鲜为人知的文章《白种人，上帝的骄子！》进行比较。这两篇作品都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光交汇的经历，因此引用了经典的主题，即使在特殊主义的分析中，也能很容易进行理论思考。而且由于两者都描述了政治化的经验，因此避免了西方理论的老东方主义与本土经验的抉择。弗朗茨和朱自清都同样具有理论性和经验性，且互相借鉴。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的一个例子，笔者拟在本文中对弗朗茨·法农的《黑人的事实》(他的经典《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一个章节)与朱自清鲜为人知的文章《白种人——上帝的骄子!》进行比较。这两篇文章都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光相遇的经历，因此援引了经典主题，即使在进行具象分析中，也能很容易地进行理论思考。而且因为两者都描述了政治化的经验，他们避免了西方理论与本土经验的古老东方主义之争。法农和朱自清都具有同样的理论和经验，且相互借鉴。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:12, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:Example.jpg]]==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
“The Fact of Blackness” is Fanon's analysis of a black man's frustration in attempting to create a viable self-identity in the France of the 1950's. Analysis in the psychoanalytic sense, not the scientific-sociological one; or, better still, ''self-analysis'', for the chapter is cast in the form of a first-person narrative. Fanon writes a sort of psychoanalytically fueled prose poem. There are few objective assertions made about “the way it is”; the problem is seen from what appears to be the inside of a black man's head, what he feels and how he reacts to the shiftingly solid front of White France arrayed against him..<br />
<br />
Not necesssarily Fanon's. In his introduction, Fanon writes that in this chapter, “we observe the desperate struggles of a Negro who is driven to discover the meaning of black identity." Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 16. The wording here suggests a fictional narrator. Nonetheless, one guesses that it is a fictualized Fanon, and I will use “Fanon” as a convenience in place of “the narrator” for the remainder of this paper.（注释）<br />
<br />
<br />
“黑人事实”是法农（Fanon) 对黑人试图在1950年代的法国创造可行的自我身份的挫败感的分析。心理分析意义上的分析，不是科学社会学意义上的分析；或更好的是“自我分析”，因为本章以第一人称叙述的形式呈现。法农写了一首精神分析的散文诗。很少有人对“现状”作出客观的断言;这个问题可以从一个黑人的大脑内部看出来，他的感受，以及他对反对他的法国白人坚实的立场的反应。<br />
<br />
<br />
不一定是法农的。法农在其引言中写道，在本章中，“我们观察到黑人被迫探索黑人身份的绝望斗争。”法兰兹·范农，《黑皮肤，白色面具》，查尔斯·林·马克曼译（纽约：格罗夫出版社，1967年）16.这里的措辞暗示着一个虚构的叙述者，尽管如此，有人猜测这是一个虚构的法农，在本文的其余部分中，我将使用“范农”代替“叙述者”。 （注释）--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Some of the most striking and most quoted parts of this narrative are Fanon's attempts to deal with the intrusive voice of the white child who cries out in fear of him:<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was an external stimulus that flicked over me as I passed by. I made a tight smile.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was true. It amused me.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” The circle was drawing a bit tighter. I made no secret of my amusement.<br />
<br />
“Mama, see the Negro! I'm frightened!” Frightened! Frightened! Now they were beginning to be afraid of me. I made up my mind to laugh myself to tears, but laughter had become impossible.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是 Fanon 试图处理白人儿童因害怕他而大声呼喊的侵扰性声音：<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”当我经过时，一种外在的刺激掠过我的心头。我笑得很紧。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”是真的。我很开心。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈越来越紧了。我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，看那黑鬼！我吓坏了！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心要笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:18, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和最常被引用的部分，是法侬试图处理那个白人孩子因为害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音:<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我的头顶。我紧张地笑了笑。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”圆圈变得更紧了。我毫不掩饰自己的快乐。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，你看那个黑人!我害怕!”吓!吓坏了!现在他们开始害怕我了。我决定笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:14, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种叙述中一些最引人注目和被引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人儿童因为害怕他而大声疾呼发出的侵扰声音：<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我。我紧张地笑了。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是真的。它逗乐了我。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈画的更紧了。我掩饰不住快乐。<br />
“妈妈，看黑人！我害怕！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心笑出眼泪，但笑声已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:41, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人孩子因害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音：<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”我路过时，一个声音从我耳边掠过，我紧张地笑了。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”神经更紧绷了，我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，你看那个黑人！我害怕！”害怕呀！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心最好笑出眼泪来，但这已经不可能了。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
In this passage as elsewhere in the chapter, there are many voices accusing Fanon, yet the voice of the child has a special bluntness, one that hits Fanon harder. Beneath that voice, his attempt to defend himself through an ever-increasing amusement is undone; the child unmasks his anguish. He is for Fanon not just a historical boy, nor an empirical average of thousands of trembling boys, but a resonance of something deeper within Fanon's narrative. Fanon does not devote an inordinate amount of space to the child, and it would be an exaggeration to say that the appearances of this child constitute the thematic center of his chapter. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, the white child does play a crucial role, as he is in fact a grotesque foil for Fanon's own exasperated narrative voice, which is a rewriting, for race, of narratives of developmental psychology. In particular, Jacques Lacan's famous theory of the “mirror stage” is clearly its primary inspiration. Even though Fanon never makes explicit reference to Lacan or “The Mirror Stage” in the chapter, such references are numerous in Black Skin, White Masks as a whole-there is no doubt that Fanon knew the paradigm well. And the structure of his narrative runs suspiciously parallel to Lacan's explications, so much that it might be fair to call “The Fact of Blackness” an ironic rewriting of “The Mirror Stage.”<br />
<br />
尽管如此，这个白人孩子确实扮演了一个重要的角色，因为他实际上是Fanon自己恼怒的叙述声音的怪诞衬托，这是对种族、发展心理学叙述的重写。特别是雅克·拉康著名的“镜像舞台”理论，显然是其主要灵感来源。尽管法农在本章中从未明确提及拉康或“镜子舞台”，但这样的提及在黑皮肤、白面具中比比皆是——毫无疑问，法农非常了解这个范式。他的叙述结构与拉康的解释平行，甚至可以说《黑人的事实》是对《镜子舞台》的讽刺重写。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:49, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Lacan's theory is complex, moving in unexpected directions and drawing different sets of conclusions. But all are sourced in the moment of a baby before a mirror, fascinated to discover itself for the first time. The stage at which this critical fascination can occur lasts from the age of six to eighteen months, according to Lacan, and its primary importance is in providing the infant with a temporary shortcut to mature subjectivity. In his words, the mirror “precipitates” the child's I in a “primordial form, before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other, and before language restores to it, in the universal, its function as subject.” <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In contrast, Fanon only reaches his version of the mirror stage ''after'' passing through objectification and restoration to subjectivity. His “mirror stage” is precisely the quest for subjectivity narrated through the “plot” outlined above. But this plot is skewed¬-consider Lacan's discussion of the mirror stage itself:<br />
<br />
The fact is that the total form of the body by which the subject anticipates in a mirage the maturation of his power is certainly more constituent than constituted, but in which it appears to him above all in a contrasting size (''un relief de stature'') that fixes it and in a symmetry that inverts it, in contrast with the turbulent movement that the subject feels are animating him.<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复到主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。 他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，请思考拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
事实是，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:17, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，需要考虑拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
实际上，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Fanon's mirror is of course the White. In that mirror he is inverted, re-created as an image exactly opposite to his own reality, and it is only through that inversion, that ''perversion'' of his Self that he is allowed to know himself. And, moreover, that inversion is ''fixed'' in the mirror, as Fanon puts it, fixed as a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. No matter how Fanon questions, no matter what rhetorical tack he chooses to confront the mirror, it refuses to give back any other image. Does Fanon feel a universal, rational soul animating himself? Does he well up with the turbulence of an earth-poetry that takes him to the magic font of his humanity? It does not matter. The mirror is impervious and flat. His image is fixed.<br />
<br />
法农的镜子当然是白色的。在那面镜子里，他被颠倒了，被重新塑造成了一个与现实中的自己完全相反的形象。他也只有通过这种倒位，通过这种对自我的扭曲，才被允许认知自己。而且，正如法农所说，这种倒位在镜子中是固定的，就像化学溶液被染料固定一样。无论法农如何提问，无论他选择用怎样夸张的策略来面对镜子，它都拒绝给出任何其他的形象。法农是否感觉到一个普通又理性的灵魂在激励着自己?他是否很好地适应了尘世诗歌将他带到自身人性的神奇源泉所引起的动荡? 这无所谓。这面镜子不透水，而且是平的。他的形象是固定的。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:37, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
法农的镜子当然是白色的。在那面镜子里，他被颠覆了，被重新塑造成了一个与现实中的自己完全相反的形象。只有通过这种倒位，通过这种对自我的扭曲，他才能认识自己。而且，正如法农所说，这种倒位在镜子中是固定的，就像化学溶液被染料固定一样。无论法农如何提问，无论他选择用怎样夸张的策略来面对镜子，它都拒绝给出任何其他的形象。法农是否感觉到一个普通又理性的灵魂在激励着自己?他是否很好地适应了尘世诗歌将他带到自身人性的神奇源泉所引起的动荡? 这无所谓。这面镜子不透水，而且是平的。他的形象是固定的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:56, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Lacan tells us that the function of the mirror stage “is to establish a relation between the organism and its reality - or, as they say, between the ''Innenwelt'' and the ''Umwelt''.” For Lacan, it is the organism itself which determines and creates the relation, it creates its reality, but Fanon feels himself to be “overdetermined from without,” he is created by the White reality.<br />
<br />
That relation is an average of many different species of dominance. But perhaps more than any other, it is the dominance of an adult over a child. Listen again to the voices which fix Fanon: “Understand, my dear ''boy'', color prejudice is something I find entirely foreign.” <br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
“Gently, in the tone that one uses with a ''child'', they introduced me to the existence of a certain view that was held by certain people.” “now and then when we are worn out by our lives in big buildings, we will turn to you as we do to our ''children''-to the innocent, the ingenuous, the spontaneous. We will turn to you as to the ''childhood'' of the world.” (italics mine) The White mirror thus fixes Fanon as a perpetual infant, the Black “boy” who embodies youthful naiveté. He knows he is in the mirror stage, he is an infant who has already read Lacan, and he is desperate to find in the mirror the image which will allow him to realize his ''I'', but the mirror always gives him back his infant inverse. He cannot realize himself, he can never leave the mirror stage, he is ''fixed''.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a point of entry into the subsurface struggle of the text. The child is Fanon's parallel and his foil: “look, a nigger, it's cold, the nigger is shivering because he is cold, the little boy is trembling because he is afraid of the nigger, the nigger is shivering with cold, the cold that goes through your bones, the handsome little boy is trembling because he thinks that the nigger is quivering with rage, the little boy throws himself into his mother's arms: Mama, the nigger's going to eat me up.”[ Fanon, 114.] The boy mirrors Fanon, but ironically: his freedom to be afraid, his freedom even to see an Other that is not synonymous with the Self[ Fanon asserts thtat the black is not Other to the white, but his argument is that the white claims he does not need to go through identification with the black-as-Other in order to come to a realization of the Sel; on the contrary, White simply “is”; black is not-White. But though the white does not idenify through the black Other, this of course does not mean that Fanon is asserting that the white does not identify the black as Other.] is a mockery of the boyhood which Fanon cannot escape. One might even profitably read this mirroring as a form of mimicry.<br />
<br />
因此，白人孩子是进入文本深层斗争的切入点。孩子法农的对比和衬托:“看，一个黑鬼，很冷，黑鬼在颤抖，因为他很冷，小男孩在颤抖，因为他害怕黑人，黑人冷得直打哆嗦，寒冷刺骨，英俊的小男孩在颤抖，因为他认为黑鬼是在愤怒的颤抖。小男孩投入母亲的怀里：“妈妈，黑鬼会吃我。”[Fanon, 114.]男孩模仿法农，但具有讽刺意味的是：他害怕自由，甚至看到一个不等同于自我的自由。法农断言只有黑白色没有其他，但他认为白色声称他不需要经过鉴定黑色选取的顺序来实现；相反，白色只是白色；黑色是不是白人。但是，尽管白人不能通过黑人的他者来识别他们，这当然并不意味着法侬断言白人不能将黑人识别为他者，这是对法侬无法逃避的少年时代的嘲弄。人们甚至可以将这种镜像理解为一种模仿的形式。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:00, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
In standard postcolonial discourse, “mimicry” refers to either a pseudo-imitation forced on the colonized by the colonizer who wants the colonized to “be like” the colonizing cultural model, but not identical to it; or it can refer to deliberate ironization of such models by the colonized. Either case results in what Homi Bhabha calls a “double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority.”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.] However, as Diana Fuss notes, “the mimicry of subversion can find itself reinforcing conventional power relations rather than eroding them.”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] Fanon's experience is just such a case - the mimicry is the white boy's, not Fanon's, and its effect is not at all disruptive, but reinforces the conventional power relations.<br />
<br />
在标准的后殖民话语中，“模仿”指的是殖民者强迫被殖民者变得“像”殖民地文化模式，但与之不完全相同的伪模仿；也可以指被殖民者对这种模式的刻意讽刺。任何一种情况都会导致霍米·巴哈所说的“在揭露殖民话语的矛盾性的同时也会破坏其权威的双重视野”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.]然而，正如戴安娜·福斯所说，“颠覆的模仿会发现自己在强化传统的权力关系而非削弱。”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] 法农的经历就是这样一个例子——模仿是白人男孩的，而不是法农的，它根本没有破坏性，反而强化了传统的权力关系。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The boy thinks he is in danger of assault and trembles; in fact, it is Fanon who trembled first, who is the one really exposed to violence, and who is in fact ''being assaulted'' by the boy's unwitting mimicry of his weakness.<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a cruel unwitting joker who offers Fanon seeming doors of rhetorical escape into maturity, then frustrates him, turns him back on himself, locks him into the image of “the childhood of the world.” And the most destructive part is that the child does not know he is the god's mask; he screams as an innocent and can leap to the mother's arms. Fanon screams, and the monstrous mirror stays silvery and cold: it inverts and it fixes, but it never recognizes.<br />
<br />
“White People-God's Proud Children!” was written in direct response to (and less than three weeks after) the “May 30 Massacre.”<br />
<br />
男孩认为自己有被攻击的危险，吓得发抖;事实上，首先颤抖的是法龙（Fanon），真正遭受暴力的是法龙，实际上也是法龙被男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点所攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑，他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后让他沮丧，让他回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:05, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
男孩感觉自己有被攻击的危险而吓得发抖;事实上，首先战栗的是法龙（Fanon），他是真正遭受暴力的人。实际上是因为男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点才导致法农被攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑。他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后又让他沮丧而回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:00, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In mid-May of 1925, factory workers at a Japanese plant in Shanghai went on strike, and then stormed the factory grounds, demanding back wages. The Japanese managers shot and killed the strike leader and injured several others, prompting more general strikes at other Japanese factories by 20,000 workers. Students soon joined the workers in protest, and several were arrested inside the foreign concessionary zone. On May 30, the date scheduled for the trial of those arrested, 2,000 students marched on the concessionary zone demanding the release of the students and workers. In response, British troops arrested a hundred of those assembled. News of the new arrests spread rapidly, and by later that day, several thousand Shanghainese of different levels of society had surrounded the Nanjing Road jail where the protesters were being held, demanding their release. At this point, the British opened fire, killing a dozen or so Chinese and wounding several dozen.<br />
<br />
1925年5月中旬，上海一家日本工厂工人罢工，然后冲进工厂，要求讨回工资。工厂日本经理射杀了罢工领袖，打伤数名工人，导致其他日本工厂2,0000工人发起了更大规模的罢工。学生很快加入工人抗议，随后部分学生在租界遭到逮捕。5月30日原定是遭逮捕的工人和学生受审日子，2,000学生在租界游行示威，要求释放学生和工人。作为回应，英国士兵逮捕了数百名示威者。这一消息很快传开来，当天晚些时候，几千名上海社会人士包围了关押抗议者的南京路监狱，要求释放他们。鉴于此，英军开火，射杀了十几名中国人，打伤几十中国人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Nationwide protests of various sorts erupted immediately, including several literary protests, two by Zhu: “Blood Song,” an incendiary poem composed on June 10, and “White People,” written nine days later.<br />
<br />
The essay never refers explicitly to the May 30 incident; rather, it is the narration and explication of an incident which Zhu experienced on a Shanghai city trolley. After boarding and going to the first-class seats, Zhu sits down across from two white people, apparently a father and son. Zhu marvels at the lovely features of the boy, who looks eleven or twelve, and then goes into an explanation of how he has been fascinated with children ever since a friendship in elementary school with a shy younger boy named Liu Jun. He admits that he loves to stare at young children, and that he stared therefore at the white child.<br />
<br />
各行各业的抗议行动在全国范围内一触即发，包括了几个文学的抗议行动，其中就有朱自清的两部作品，其一是创作于6月10日的诗篇《血歌》，表现了火山爆发式的强烈情感，九天后，朱自清又写下另一篇文章《白种人——上帝的骄子》。<br />
虽然这篇文章从未明确指出“五卅”惨案，但朱自清在上海的一路电车上的亲见亲闻刚好记述和解释了这次事件的情况。朱上电车之后，走进头等座里，和两个白种人并排而坐，他猜想那两人是一对父子。小男孩看上去十一二岁的样子，他惊羡于小男孩的可爱容貌，解释说自己多么想要跟这个男孩亲近，因为这让他想起了自己初中时的一个叫做刘君的玩伴，也是一个害羞的小男孩。他承认自己喜欢凝视小孩子，所以才会对这个白人小孩多看了几眼。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 03:39, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Unlike most children, disturbed by his staring, the white child appears to take no notice, but then, when he and his father are about to get off the trolley, the child flashes a violent, mimicking stare back at Zhu. The author hears words in the stare: “There were words in his eyes: 'Hah! Yellow man, yellow chinaman, you-you go ahead and look! You are worthy of looking at me!” Zhu feels this stare as a physical assault, and feels first terrified, and then patriotically enraged. He then explains his desire for a nationality-trumping universalism, but also doubts its possibility, since such a young child had already been socialized into acceptance of racist categories. Yet he praises the child for exhibiting masculine forcefulness, and claims that this is “what makes whites white.” Finally, he declares himself conflicted on the subject of nationalism versus universalism, ending the essay unresolved.<br />
<br />
与大多数孩子不一样，这个白人小孩对于朱自清的打量毫不在意，但当白人小孩和他的父亲准备下电车时，那个孩子怒目回望了朱一眼。朱从该怒视里读出：“哈，黄种人，黄种中国人，你继续看吧！你也就配看着我的份了！”朱从中感到一种身体上的攻击，一开始觉得害怕，然后带有爱国主义的愤怒喷涌而出。他在文中解释道，这样一个年幼的孩子都已经为社会所同化，接受了种族主义的范畴，虽然自己渴望国籍优先的普遍主义，但同时也怀疑这个普遍主义的可能性。然而，他赞赏这个孩子表现出的男性之力量，同时也认为这点是“白人的典型特征”。最后，他对于民族主义和普遍主义的问题上产生了矛盾，直到文末该问题也悬而未决。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
和大多数的孩子不同，白人小孩起初没有注意到朱的目光，当感觉到有人在看他后，他和父亲正要下电车，接着小孩向朱回了恶狠狠的目光。朱从他的怒视中读到：“咄！黄种人，黄种的支那人，你——你看吧！你也配看我！”朱从中感觉遭到了人身攻击，首先是张皇失措，而后他的爱国热枕喷涌而出。他解释说自己盼望的是国籍优先的普遍主义，可是眼看这个孩子小小年纪就已被社会所同化，接受了种族主义，他便开始怀疑普遍主义是否还有实现的可能。然而，他对孩子展现出来的男性力量表示赞赏，“这正说明了白人之所以为白人”。最后，他陷入了民族主义和普遍主义的矛盾之中，直到结尾，文章也未给出解决的方案。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 03:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Given the Fanon-inspired traditions of Western postcolonial invocations of the Other, one might from a Western perspective expect Zhu to react to the gaze of the child with a crisis of ''personal'' identity. This is, after all, Fanon's Odyssean quest in “The Fact of Blackness”: to negotiate or seize for himself a space for valued selfhood against the demeaning voices of White France which try to lock him into an Otherness to itself, to himself , to the possibility of humanity. Zhu's reaction certainly fits, in name, the Self-Other trope: he experiences the white child as very White and Other. And the incident deeply traumatic: “This sudden assault made me panic; my heart was void, on all sides there was a very heavy pressure, making me unable to breathe freely.” But the incident does not fit the mirror-stage model as transmitted by Fanon.<br />
<br />
鉴于法农对西方后殖民的祈祷，某人从西方角度来看可能希望朱自清对带有个人身份危机的小孩的凝视作出回应。毕竟，这是法农在“黑暗事实”中的奥德赛追求：为自己谈判或夺取有价值的自我空间，反对法国白人的贬低之声，试图使他陷入一个不同于自己、不同于人性可能性的不同物中。朱自清的反应确实很适合自己-他人的修辞：他对白人小孩的经历很像白人与其他人的经历。这一事件深深地伤害了我：“这次突然袭击使我感到恐慌；我的心是空虚的，四面都是沉重的压力，使我无法自由地呼吸。”但该事件不符合法农传递的镜像阶段模型。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There is no reference to psychical development, and therefore no hint that the quasi-colonialist aggression experienced through the gaze is constitutive, that it denies an authentic Chinese subjectivity to Zhu and replaces it with an ironclad Otherness to himself.<br />
Rather, it confirms Zhu's sense of self by provoking an immediate nationalistic response. After recovering from the shock of the gaze, he immediately “was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” He then reflects on the child's face and action and straightaway abstracts them into a symptom of history:<br />
<br />
That which made me panic and feel terrified, was that this one lording it over me, trampling me, was no one but...a ten year-old white “child”! I always have felt that children belong to the world, and ought not to be of a single race, country, town, or family...<br />
<br />
没有提到精神的发展，因此也没有线索表明，仅因为一个凝视，就构成了类似殖民主义侵略，它否定了朱自清真实的中国主观性，取而代之的是一种其他的东西。<br />
相反，它立即引起民族情感来确认朱自清的自我意识。他震惊于这种目光，回过神后，心中“充满了一种紧迫的民族主义情绪！“之后，他反思了孩子的表情和行为，并直接将其概括为一种历史的表现：<br />
<br />
让我惊慌和害怕的是，这个冲着我逞威风的、践踏我尊严的，不过是……一个十岁的白人“孩子”！我一直觉得孩子是世界的，不应该是归为一个种族、一个国家、一个城镇或一个家庭……--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 01:04, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
But this ten year-old white child...had already understood the situation well enough to use racial advantage and national power to assault me with a thrust of his face. This assault was actually the small shadow of multiple assaults, and his face was the small-print version of a history of Chinese foreign relations.[ Zhu Ziqing, Zhu Ziqing Quanji, Vol. 1 (Jiangsu, Jiangsu Educational Press) 45.]<br />
<br />
Despite our Fanon-inspired suspicions about his psychology, Zhu insists that the shock he received, the pressure, the difficulty breathing, was the result of his ''theoretical'' realization that the child was not innocent but had already been corrupted into the fabric of violence from which Sino-Western relations had been cut. The normal, the psychological-these responses are leapt over, the incident is abstracted directly into a symptom of history. And, at least on the surface, this fact might seem to confirm the anti-theoretical position which claims that postcolonial criticism is irrelevant to China because China never sunk into full colonial status.<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子已经非常了解这种情况了，甚至可以利用种族优势和国家权力以他的面目攻击我。 这次袭击实际上是多次袭击的一个小阴影，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，但朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力，呼吸困难是他“理论上”意识到孩子不是无辜的，而是被中西关系断绝所产生的暴力侵蚀。<br />
正常的，这些心理的反应被跳过了，事件被直接抽象为历史的象征。 而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该立场声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民地状态。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子……已经非常了解这种情况了，他可以利用种族优势和国家权力的面目攻击我。这次袭击实际上是数次袭击的影子，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力和呼吸困难，是他从“理论上”认识到这个孩子不是无辜的，而是已经腐坏成中西关系已被割断的、暴力的结果。跳过正常的心理的反应，这个事件被抽象成历史的症状。而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该主张声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民状况。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
One could easily derive a trajectory from comparative history to the differences in the two men's encounters with white children, a trajectory whose terms are familiar but worth rehearsing. Fanon's Martinique was almost totally cut off from racial history, national language, and cultural identity. Any nationalism that arose from such soil would have had to have been as a reconstruction of African identity from zero, an almost impossible task. Therefore, Fanon's text has to start from the postcolonial present, analyzing the continuing damage of racism on subjugated black communities. Most of China, despite the extreme cultural upheavals which it experienced in reaction to Western aggression, never sunk into full-fledged colonial status; and therefore this aggression remained for the most part an influential and traumatic margin to the mainstream development of Chinese historical identity. There was no slavery, no tabula rasa, not even in Hong Kong and Macao, or Taiwan and “Manchuria.” <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
On the contrary, the experience of aggression undoubtedly strengthened national consciousness; and in modernist writings such as the one in question, it is rare to read a moment of experience of the Western Other as such which does not resort to some form of nationalism.<br />
<br />
Up to a point, this sort of analysis is useful. Certainly, it would be dangerous to move directly from historical sketches to windy declarations about the differences between African and Chinese literature. But the standard history does happen to match the particulars of these two authors' educational trajectories. The surface, then, of “White People” is simple and obvious in comparison with Fanon's text, forgoing psychological brooding to go straight to the main course of national pride. <br />
<br />
And yet, one wonders what lurks in the essay's depths, for this is a very unusual piece in Zhu's oeuvre.<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑加强了民族意识；在现代主义的著作中，如有关的著作中，很少读到对西方他者这样的经验不诉诸某种形式的民族主义的时刻。<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，这种分析是有用的。当然，如果直接从历史素描转向关于非洲文学和中国文学差异的风马牛不相及的宣言，是很危险的。 但标准的历史确实恰好符合这两位作家教育轨迹的特殊性。 那么，与法农的文字相比，《白衣人》的表面是简单而明显的，放弃了心理上的沉思，直奔民族自豪感的主菜。 <br />
<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑增强了民族意识。 在诸如此类的现代主义著作中，很少有人会读到西方他人的经历，因为这种经历不诉诸某种形式的民族主义。<br />
到目前为止，这种分析是有用的。 当然，直接从历史速写转变为关于非洲和中国文学之间差异的风马牛不相及的宣言将是危险的。 但是，标准的历史确实与这两位作者的教育轨迹相吻合。 因此，“白人”的表述与法农的著作相比是简单而明显的，它放弃了对民族自豪感的直觉。<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱自清的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Normally, Zhu Ziqing is one of the last authors one associates with fiery nationalism; rather, he is usually preoccupied with just the sort of psychological introspection which characterizes Fanon's text. Furthermore, the essay was written more than a year after the original trolley ride-could the strangely quick transition from individual experience to nationalist reflection be at least partly created under the influence to retell the story in the light of the May 30 incident?<br />
<br />
If one willfully forgets about the May 30 context of the essay and focuses on the details of the incident as Zhu narrates them, then a second and separate level of interpretation opens in the essay, one much more pregnant with Fanon-like psychological trauma. The widest portal to the inside of this essay is also its obvious crux: i.e., the white child's stare. The key to this portal is that that stare, as it happened empirically, was complete unto itself.<br />
<br />
朱自清可以算得上最后一位与激烈的民族主义联系在一起的作家，相反，他通常只专注于法侬文本中所特有的那种心理反省。从个人经历到民族主义反思的迅速转变是否部分原因是由于“五卅惨案”的影响?<br />
<br />
如果你有意忘记掉这篇文章“五卅惨案”的背景，而把重点放在朱叙述事件的细节上，那么这篇文章就开启了另一个层面的解读，一个充满法农式的心理创伤的解读。这篇文章最广阔的内部入口也是它明显的症结所在：即白人儿童的凝视。这个入口的关键是那种凝视，好像它是凭经验发生的，是完全独立的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 07:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
It was an act, an aggressive act, unaccompanied by words. When Zhu tells us that “there were words in his eyes,” he wants us to believe that the words came from the child himself, and in fact we can certainly believe that that is how Zhu experienced the stare, that he felt the hate speech jabbing out at him from those astonishing eyes. But yet the language admits its paternity: not the child, but Zhu himself. Zhu creates the meaning around the act of the stare, and his entire explication of the problem of racism is based, not upon what he hears, but upon what his unconscious hermeneutic tells him that he hears. Whereas Fanon lives in a shadowy world of little but voices shouting, “look, a Negro!” to Zhu there are no voices at all, only a reality of trolleys and white skin and violent stares to which he himself has to supply the verbal accompaniment.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
This is absolutely not to say that Zhu's experience of racism is imaginary, that he “shouldn't be so sensitive,” as racists say. No doubt, the child was acting racistly. But it is important to notice that the racism which Zhu attributes to the child is a simple one: the child is figured as a self-assured, mature, masculine aggressor; in fact all of these qualities which Zhu feels are surely exaggerated. He might have suspected that prepubescent white children are somehow super-matured macho-men, but hopefully we know better. For Zhu's stare was not the first the boy had received. Anyone who has had the experience of living as a racial minority in a non-pluralistic society knows what it is like to be stared at constantly; this is in fact the primary condition of Fanon's experience which makes “The Fact of Blackness” possible. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Thus, in this regard, Fanon is perhaps closer to the boy than to Zhu; or if this is too strong, we could say that Fanon is split between the boy and Zhu, that Zhu shares with Fanon the experience of being dissected by the gaze of the aggressor culture, but that the boy shares with him the constancy of being stared at for being a racial minority. The boy's position in China was obviously much higher than that of Fanon's in France, and therefore the stares he would have received much less negative; yet the mere fact of the constant stare itself can exert an intense psychical pressure, especially on a boy at an age at which deep doubts about his self-identity are forming. This is not at all to excuse the real racist content of the boy's angry glare; but it does suggest that the glare was a lashing-out from a position of weakness and insecurity, rather than from the heel-grinding arrogance which Zhu assumes.<br />
<br />
因此，在这方面，法侬也许比朱自清更像男孩；或者，如果这种说法过于绝对，我们可以说，法侬在男孩和朱自清之间是分裂的，朱自清和法侬一样，经历着被侵略者文化的凝视所解剖，但男孩和他一样，一样，始终被人盯着看，因为他是一个少数民族。这个男孩在中国的地位显然要比法侬在法国的地位高得多，因此他受到的负面目光也会少得多；然而，仅仅是持续的凝视本身就会产生一种强烈的心理压力，尤其是对于一个对自我身份正在形成深刻怀疑的年龄的男孩来说。这一点也不是为男孩愤怒的怒视中的真正种族主义内容开脱；但这确实表明，他的怒视是一种来自软弱和不安全感的鞭挞，而不是朱棣文所认为的那种傲慢自大。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Moreover, it is Zhu who initiated this discomforting dialogue of stares. Zhu's boy, like Fanon's, is a mimic, although his mimicry is just as problematic. As Homi Bhabha says, “the look of surveillance returns as the displacing gaze of the disciplined, where the observer becomes the observed and 'partial representation rearticulates the whole notion of ''identity ''and alienates it from essence,”[ Bhabha, 89.] but in this case the mimic gaze is the colonizer's , and it returns precisely as the establishment of racial boundaries. Certainly, Zhu felt this mimicry as an example of colonial aggression; it is only the boy who might have thought of the stare in Bhabha's terms, as his defense mechanism against a racially-motivated intrusion into his privacy.<br />
<br />
And Zhu's initiating stare is certainly racial (though not racist); he gloats over the boy's Caucasianness: “His white cheeks dashed with red and his long golden eyelashes revealed a peacefulness and elegance.”[ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
<br />
此外，正是朱自清发起了这场令人不安的凝视的对话。朱自清的儿子和法侬的儿子一样，是个模仿者，尽管他的模仿也有问题。正如霍米·巴巴所说，“监视的目光作为被训练者取代的凝视回归，观察者成为被观察的对象，‘部分表征重新表达了“身份”的整个概念，并将其与本质分离，’”[霍米·巴巴, 89。]但在这种情况下，模仿的目光是殖民者的目光，而这种目光的回归正是建立了种族界限。当然，朱自清认为这种模仿是殖民侵略的一个例子;只有这个男孩可能会想到，用霍米·巴巴的话说，这种盯着他看的眼神是他抵御种族主义侵犯隐私的防御机制。<br />
<br />
朱自清最初的凝视显然带有种族主义色彩(虽然不是种族主义);他沾沾自喜地欣赏着这个男孩的高加索气质:“他那雪白的脸颊上满是红晕，长长的金色睫毛流露出一种平和优雅的气质。”--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 09:10, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhu, of course, tries to cover this fact; this is the prime rhetorical function of the discussion of Liu Jun. Without that mini-narrative, Zhu would have had to go directly from a description of the boy's whiteness into the boy's violent reaction, thus allowing the reader to assume that Zhu's racial gaze is what produced that reaction, complicating the question of the child's aggression. Instead, Zhu asserts a different reason why he is staring: he simply likes children, he has ever since he used to play with that little Liu Jun boy. Zhu wants to figure his own gaze as mostly aracial and entirely beneficent, a happy celebration of innocence which is met by abrupt, mature, racist aggression, shocking him out of his reveries into a disturbed reflection on nationalism and interracial strife.<br />
<br />
Fine, so be it, Zhu's gaze is completely aracial, despite his gloating about pink cheeks and golden eyelashes. It is not therefore simple. Consider the bizarreness hidden in his self-justification:<br />
<br />
当然，朱试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种迷你叙事，朱将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
<br />
很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:14, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当然，朱自清试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军（Liu Jun）谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种短小叙事，朱自清将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱自清的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱自清宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
<br />
很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱自清的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:16, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
I have always had the sort of temperament whereby if I saw an amusing little child, I would always want to be on intimate terms with him...When I was in the upper grades of elementary school, in the attached building for the middle grades there was a boy named Liu Jun with raven-black Western-style hair, who was truly docile, like a bird....his face was always that undisturbed and earnest, though under his skin there must have burned the fires of intimacy. Several times I invited him to my home, but he was never willing to go; afterwards I didn't see him for two years, and then he died. I cannot forget him! I had held his little hand, and rubbed his round chin. If I meet a young child for the first time, I naturally can't do that, that would be a little awkward; nevertheless, that's unimportant, I can look at him- once, twice, ten times, dozens of times!<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热...在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般...他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 09:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热……。在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般……。他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Any given child probably won't pay much attention to people's eyes, so one can look at him with total freedom; it is not at all like furtive, covered glances at women. I have in the past stared at many children I had just met, and they never once protested, at most they pulled on the hand of their mother next to them, or leant on her knee, or looked at her once or twice. Therefore I was very bold. This time on the trolley my old temperament came back, and I looked again and again at that white child, that young Westerner![ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
''Sexuality! ''is the obvious cry which rises at the description of Liu Jun: the docility, the meekness, the holding and rubbing, the “fires of intimacy”--these elements conspire to suggest a nascent homosexuality.<br />
<br />
孩子们可能都不会多注意旁人的眼神，因此你便可以随心所欲地盯着他们看，这与对女人偷偷摸摸的扫视完全不同。 以前，我曾盯着许多我遇到的孩子看，他们从未抗拒过，最多是紧紧拉住旁边母亲的手，倚靠在膝盖上，或者看看自己。 因此，我胆子很大。 这次在电车上，我的老毛病又犯了，我一次又一次地看向那个白人孩子，那个年少的西方人！[朱，43.]<br />
<br />
在刘军的描写中，“性欲”呼之欲出：温顺，温柔，坚守和摩擦，“亲密之火”，这些元素都暗示着同性恋的萌芽。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:06, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Little Liu is dead, now, but there are substitutes swirling all around Zhu; he cannot touch them as he touched Liu, that would be socially impossible, but as a substitute he can stare with impunity, “dozens of times.” And the children do not protest his stares, they are docile-at most they squirm uncomfortably beneath Zhu's visual intrusion into their world. Zhu's relationship with children is therefore predicated by his dominance of them. He says at the opening of the paragraph that he wants to be intimate with children, but it is an intimacy of power forcing itself upon them.[ The evidence for Zhu's child-fetish is strongly corroborated by his other work. Apart from the focus on childhood in works like the famous, “Back Silhouette” (beiying), in another essay of his, “Children,” he goes so far as to explicitly admit to physical child abuse. ]<br />
<br />
Given these strange admissions, one sees Zhu's reaction to the white child's stare as much more complicated. Zhu experiences the stare as racism, and probably rightly so; yet it seems clear that he is also shocked by the reversal of power involved.<br />
<br />
小刘死了，但是现在有其他人围着朱自清打转；他不能像抚摸小刘那样摸其他孩子，这在社会上是不可能的，但作为补偿，他可以免受惩罚地盯着他们几十次。 孩子们对他的凝视并不反感，他们是温顺的——顶多就是在朱先生对他们世界的视觉侵扰下不舒服地扭动下。 因此，朱自清与孩子的关系由他对孩子的支配地位决定。 他在这一段的开头说，他想和孩子们亲密，但这种亲密是权力强迫所致。（朱自清的恋童癖在他的其他作品中得到了有力的证实。 除了在著名的《背影》等作品中对童年的关注外，在他的另一篇散文《孩子们》中，甚至明确承认对儿童有进行身体上的虐待。）<br />
<br />
鉴于这些奇怪的承认，人们认为朱自清凝视白人孩子时的反应要复杂得多。 朱先生将这种凝视视为种族主义，这或许正确的；然而，他显然也对所涉及的权力倒置感到震惊。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
He normally enjoys the prerogative of a forced intimacy, dominating children through his gaze, and suddenly he finds, for the first time, a child that fights gaze with gaze, is able to dominate him and usurp Zhu's position as an adult, casting him down into the docility of the helpless child. When Zhu, flabbergasted, constructs a voice to put onto the child, he may be grabbing onto the real racism present in the situation to use as a defense mechanism, changing the subject to avoid the real source of the ego-crushing which is occurring. Zhu protests his amazement that he could be so disturbed by “just a ten year old white 'child'”; yet the entire scenario could never possibly have been played out with an adult.<br />
<br />
Fanon's child is a mirror to him, highlighting the Lacanian crisis of identification which life in France causes him.<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过他的目光支配孩子，突然，他发现，第一次有孩子和他对着凝视，这凝视能控制着他，篡夺朱作为一个成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制，改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有一个十岁的白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起进行。法农的孩子如同一面镜子，突出了他在法国的生活所造成的拉康认同危机。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过眼色来支配孩子，他突然发现，第一次有孩子用眼神与他对视，篡夺了朱作为成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制、改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有十岁的一个白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起。对他来说，法农的孩子如同一面镜子，暴露出法国生活中拉康认同危机对他的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
If we in turn take Fanon as a mirror for Zhu Ziqing, his Lacanian analysis throws up interesting images of the incident on the Shanghai trolley. Zhu's white boy is visually even more of a mirror image to him than Fanon's was. The man and the boy gaze at each other across the solid divide; they mutually stare along a joint axis of domination. Of course, Zhu does not have Fanon's psychoanalytic training: he had read some empiricist psychology, but less Freud and of course no Lacan. He cannot wander between psychological theory and personal experience in the same fashion Fanon did.<br />
如果我们反过来以法农为朱自清的镜子，他对拉卡尼亚主义的分析在上海电车上抛出有趣的事件图像。 在视觉上，朱自清的白人男孩比法农的更像是他的镜像。 男人和男孩在坚固的鸿沟上凝视着对方。 他们沿着共同的支配轴相互凝视。 当然，朱没有接受法农的心理分析训练：他读过一些经验主义者的心理学，但是很少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉康。 他无法像法农那样在心理理论和个人经历之间徘徊。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们反过来把法农当作朱自清的镜子，他的拉卡尼亚主义分析就会对上海电车事件抛出有趣的图像。 朱自清的白人男孩在视觉上甚至比法农的男孩更像他的镜像。 男人和男孩隔着坚实的鸿沟相互凝视，他们沿着共同的统治轴线相互凝视。 当然，朱德没有法农的精神分析训练：他读过一些经验主义心理学，但少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉卡尼亚。 他不能像法农那样在心理学理论和个人经验之间游走。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But a reading of Fanon forces us to ask to what extent Zhu's trauma is a crisis of delayed issues of developmental psychology. This is obviously a complex field which belongs properly to specialists, and one hardly feels there is enough material in this brief essay to make definitive conclusions.<br />
但是对法农的阅读迫使我们问朱自清的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学迟缓问题的危机。 显然，这是一个复杂的领域，应该属于专家，并且几乎没有人认为这篇简短的文章中有足够的材料来得出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但对法农的解读，迫使我们要问，朱的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学的延迟问题的危机。 这显然是一个复杂的领域，理应属于专家的范畴，在这篇简短的文章中，我们很难感觉到有足够的材料来做出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不过，读了法农的书，我们不禁要问，朱自清的创伤究竟在多大程度上是发展心理学延迟问题的危机。这显然是一个完全属于专家研究的复杂领域。人们觉得，这篇简短的文章中没有足够的材料来让他们作出明确的结论。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:53, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
But the narrative is explicitly spun out of a story of childhood; Zhu himself derives his child-fetish from the loss of the intimate and passive Liu Jun. And Zhu's fascination with children and childhood in other essays should be an indication that something is up. Perhaps one could establish Zhu's relation to Fanon thus: that while Fanon's experience of racism is drawn into a network of theory that links his crisis of identity to an aborted mirror-stage, Zhu Ziqing sees in the mirror of his own white child a vision of himself as prematurely woven into the fabric of power. It is then only this sudden emergence of power in a half-nostalgic, half-sexual scopophilia which highlights the boy's whiteness and raises the questions of racial dominance and nationalist resistance.<br />
<br />
What makes Zhu feel nationalistic pride? It is not the boy's reaction, but his race.<br />
<br />
但故事是明确地从一个童年故事中衍生出来的;朱自清的儿童迷恋源于失去了亲密而消极的刘君。而朱自清在其他文章中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是表明有些事情发生了。也许可以建立朱自清与法农之间的关系:法农种族主义的经历卷入了理论之网，这将他的身份危机与流产镜像阶段连接起来, 朱自清从自己的白人孩子的镜子里看到了自己过早地融入权力的一面。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这部小说的叙事显然是从一个童年故事中衍生出来的；朱自清本人从失去亲密无间、被动的刘俊身上获得了对儿童的迷恋，而他在其他散文中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是某种事情发生的迹象。也许有人可以这样确定朱自清与法农的关系：虽然法农的种族主义经历被纳入了一个理论网络，将他的身份危机与一个失败的镜像阶段联系起来，但朱自清在自己的白人孩子的镜子中看到了自己过早地编织在权力结构中的形象。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:19, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Given the way Zhu sets up his narrative, given the description of his frequent and unimpeded voyeurism of children in public spaces, one assumes that any child who stared back mockingly at Zhu would have shocked him-this child was the first to do so. Had the child been Chinese and stared back, Zhu's experience might have been more obviously psycho-sexual in his own recounting. The real importance of the child's whiteness is to Zhu's rational reflections over the significance of the incident. To Zhu's mind, it was not the child's whiteness but his resistance that was disturbing; but he locates the whiteness as the source of the child's ability to resist and to then turn resistance into domination. He essentializes the incident: force is what makes whites white. A gaze on a bus becomes an allegory for the sweep of modern history.<br />
<br />
考虑到朱的叙述方式，鉴于他在公共场所频繁而畅通无阻地窥视儿童的描述，人们认为，任何一个嘲笑朱的孩子都会震惊他——这个孩子是第一个这样做的。如果这个孩子是中国人并且回头看，朱的经历可能在他自己的叙述中更明显地是心理性的。孩子白皙的真正重要性在于朱对事件意义的理性反思。在朱看来，让人不安的不是孩子的白皙，而是他的反抗；但他把白种人定位为孩子反抗能力的源泉，然后将反抗转化为支配。他将这一事件本质化：武力使白人变白。凝视一辆公共汽车就成了横扫现代历史的寓言。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 03:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
On reflection, the appearance of nationalism here is far more abrupt than it would have seemed in the Shanghai journal culture following the May 30 Massacre. Is it really a defense mechanism against the revelations of his own psychology? Is it both a defense mechanism and an expression of conscious and justified outrage over colonialist presence in Shanghai? Is it a fiction “remembered” back onto the incident in the heat of the violent summer of 1925? I do not mean by any of these questions to imply that somehow Zhu's nationalism is fake, or secondary, or subordinate; to do that would be to write a justification of the murder of the students on Nanjing Road. But of all the essays and poems and short fiction published along with Zhu's essay in the two Literary Association journals (''Xiaoshuo yuebao and Wenxue zhoukan''), none but his strays so far from the event of the massacre itself in order to support the national cause. It is legitimate to ask why.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The bifurcations in Zhu's essay between experience and historiography, practice and theory thus are constituted in an odd mix of clarity and confusion. Patriotic messages are deeply worked into the fabric of the narration of the incident, and any division between Zhu's lived experience and the big picture view of imperialism were surely invisible to any reader in the context of the essay's production. They are invisible to us, as informed readers, but only on our first readings. The deeper explorations of Zhu's gaze, by suggesting the possible distance of ideological historiography form the original event, merely highlight a structural division between narration and theory which splits the text at “I was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” The structural split is perfectly obvious; yet it is only after some thought about the nature of Zhu's project that it becomes noteworthy.<br />
<br />
因此，朱的文章中经验与史学，实践和理论之间的分歧是由清晰和混乱构成的。爱国主义的启示被深深地融入了事件的叙述之中，在这篇论文的撰写过程中，任何读者都肯定看不到朱的活生生的经验与帝国主义的大视野之间的任何分歧。作为知情的读者，它们对我们是不可见的，但仅在我们的初读时才可见。 通过暗示思想史学与原事件之间可能的距离，朱目光的更深层次的探索仅仅强调了叙事和理论之间的结构性划分，使文本分裂为“我充满了紧迫的民族主义情绪！”其中结构上的分裂非常明显； 然而，只有在对朱的项目的性质进行一些思考之后，它才值得关注。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:16, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
This is the Zhu Ziqing who declares himself a contradiction, and he can talk back to Fanon. His own textual complexes find their affinities in Fanon's text and the Fanonian textual systems that grew from it. It is impossible to forget, with Fanon, the wiles of language-his flourishes are too extravagant. Yet ''Black Skin, White Masks'' is filled with partial autobiographies. One knows one is reading theory, but it seems to be a theory grown organically from “Antillean experience,” even when we all know better. Though our study of Chinese literature might convince us that theory fits or does not fit Chinese experience, we should not assume that theory has a more natural and wholesome relationship with African or Indian experience, that the postcolonial debates were “derived” from fully colonial experience. Psychoanalytic theory created Fanon's experience, and the body of theory “derived” from Fanon has even more dramatically recreated him.<br />
<br />
这就是那个宣称自己自我矛盾的朱自清，他可以对法农进行反驳。他自身的文本情结在法农的文本和由其发展而来的法农文本体系中找到了相似之处。人们不可能忘记法农的语言诡计——他的华丽辞藻太过夸张。然而《黑皮肤，白面具》的一些部分充满了自传性质。一个人知道自己在阅读理论，甚至当我们更了解这理论时，但这理论似乎是一个有机地从“安的列斯经验”中成长起来的，虽然我们对中国文学的研究可能会让我们相信，理论是否符合中国的经验，但我们不应该假设理论与非洲或印度的经验有更自然和健康的关系，后殖民争论是“派生”自完全的殖民经验。精神分析理论创造了法农的经验，而从法农“衍生”出来的理论体则更戏剧性地重新塑造了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The point of which is not to reassert the very tired discovery that theory is not experience and words not things, but to point out that the Chinese modernist friction against theory is not unique. Insofar as we need to continue to talk about postcolonial contexts when addressing Chinese modern literature, it would be helpful to keep in perspective Chinese's non-uniqueness; to do so may help us avoid the trap of either-or questions. Tension is healthy. If we must dismiss with a wave our continuing urgent desire for comparison of unmediated experience, and cannot give ourselves over to the mere nodding affirmation of sloganized thought-systems, then at least the comparative and cross-cultural analysis of tension is still available to us.<br />
<br />
The great frustration of the work of comparison is its inability to aspire to totalisms. However conscious we are of the danger of such aspirations, they are magnetic and insinuating.<br />
<br />
这里的重点并不是要重申这个老生常谈的发现，即理论不是经验，文字也不是事物，而是要指出中国现代主义与理论的摩擦并不是唯一的。在探讨中国现代文学时，如果我们需要继续探讨后殖民语境，那么审视中国的非独特性是有帮助的。这样做可以帮助我们避免陷入非此即彼的困境。对立是有益的的。如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散我们对未经调解的经验的比较的持续的迫切愿望，不能让我们自己沉溺于仅仅是表面肯定的口号的思想体系，那么至少对立比较和跨文化的分析对我们仍然是可用的。<br />
<br />
比较研究的不足在于它不能实现极权主义。虽然我们十分清楚这种想法的危险性，但还是会被吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 07:00, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The leap from text to context is satisfying; even if one is aware of the necessity of multiple contexts, because one can choose one's school and plant one's feet and make an argument (or ignore the need for argument) that one's chosen context is the most appropriate. The comparison of individual works requires resignation to pettiness. Any other permutation of works will produce different, perhaps contradictory, lessons. For example, comparing Zhu's essay with other May 30 protest essays, such as those by Mao Dun or Zheng Zhenduo, would vastly alter our evaluation of it. Among an infinite number of permutations of comparison, the importance of any one comparison becomes infinitesimal, and its authority to define the reception of the work shrinks commensurably. The infinitesimal still has the potential for informing other research, but only by miracles of typological allegory.<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃是令人满意的，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃令人满意，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:22, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture<br />
'''<br />
Charles A. Laughlin<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''' <br />
<br />
The popularity of both Republican period and post-Mao sanwen in contemporary Chinese literary markets indicates the importance of this genre in twentieth century Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Less obvious, but no less significant, is its importance within the socialist cultural system of the Chinese Communist Party. Ever since Chinese cultural activists began to consciously promote specific literary practices as a way of contributing to “revolution” in the late 1920s, literary prose played an important role, but at first only in the form of reportage or baogao wenxue. Beginning in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan, however, young writers who received all or in part of their education or literary training in Communist institutions began to write prose texts that more closely resembled the xiaopin and suigan of the Republican period. Unlike reportage, these texts featured lyrical and humorous moments without being critical of the social environment, and they were not concerned with contemporary historical events and figures.<br />
<br />
矛盾的抒情主义：中国社会主义文化中的刘白玉，杨硕和三文。<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
<br />
民国时期和“后毛”时期三文在中国当代文学界的流行，表明了这一体裁在二十世纪中国文学中的重要性。<br />
<br />
在中国共产党的社会主义文化体系中，它的重要性并不是那么明显，但是同样重要。自从中国文化活动家在1920年代末开始有意识地推广特定的文学实践作为促进“革命”的一种方式以来，文学散文就发挥了重要的作用，但起初只是以报告文学或报刊文学的形式出现。然而，从抗日战争时期在延安开始，到共产党机构接受全部或部分教育或文学训练的年轻作家开始写散文，其文字更类似于共和时期的小品和随感。与报告文学不同，这些文本具有抒情和幽默的同时，并没有涉及到批评社会环境，也与当代历史事件和人物无关。<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Such writing achieved prominence in the first decade of the People’s Republic of China, and in this paper I examine three writers that exemplify the characteristic techniques and strategies of the socialist literary essay: Liu Baiyu, Qin Mu and Yang Shuo. Liu Baiyu exemplifies how the experience of war and revolution conditioned the emergence of lyricism in socialist culture, while Qin Mu and Yang Shuo embody the maturation of this socialist lyricism in a peacetime environment. Socialist ''sanwen'' differs from Republican period forms in its characteristically friendly yet didactic second-person rhetoric, and its tendency to build verbal monuments for national heroes. But traces of the conspicuous individuality of Republican period ''sanwen'' lived on in the essayists of the 1950s and 60s. This created a subtle dissonance in the texture of socialist culture that in my opinion contributed to the prominence and popularity of these writers, whose works were included in textbooks for later generations of mainland readers.<br />
<br />
这样的写作在中华人民共和国成立的第一个十年取得非常突出成就，在本文中，我研究了三位作家，他们是采用社会主义文学论文典型技巧和策略的典范：刘百羽，秦牧和杨硕。刘百羽举例说明了战争和革命是如何限制抒情主义在社会主义文化体现的，而秦牧和杨硕则代表了这种社会主义抒情主义在和平时期的成熟。社会主义的“散文”与共和党时期的形式不同，在于其特征性的友好而有说服力的第二人称修辞，以及为民族英雄树立口碑的趋势。但是，在1950年代和60年代的散文家中，存在着共和时期“散文”个性明显的痕迹。这在社会主义文化的结构中产生了微妙的不和谐，但在我看来，这促进了这些作家的知名度和受欢迎程度，这些作家的作品被纳入了后代大陆读者的教科书中。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
When we think of the Chinese essay we usually think of the works of Republican period liberal humanists drawing upon both Western ideas and premodern Chinese style and diction to produce a new genre that represented the artistic epitome of lyrical, colloquial prose. Perhaps just as commonly, when we think of revolutionary literature and of writing under the Chinese communist regime, we think of realism, social critique, polemic and propaganda. Indeed in my study of the development of reportage literature in the Republican and early PRC periods, I associate the procedures of reportage with the culture of leftism in such a way as to render the very notion of lyrical leftist nonfiction discordant if not outright absurd. The problem is, as I was aware at the time, there are prominent authors in the PRC – Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu, to name only a few – who made their names almost entirely through the writing of essays (sanwen). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
At that time, I dismissed this phenomenon in the usual way: these were communist lackeys simply parroting the ruling ideology at the bidding of culture czars.<br />
<br />
But even if they were, I could not account for the fact that such writing took on the form of sanwen, in many ways similar to the ''xiaopin wen'' popular the 1930s, while there was already in ''baogao wenxue'' a thriving literary nonfiction form that seemed to embody in its very form the communist vision of art and its place in society. To put it another way, there is nothing in the logic of socialist culture as I knew it that would call for the production of ''sanwen'' as written by these authors, and we know very well that authors under socialism are not at liberty to write what they please, so I had to attribute the persistence of the ''sanwen'' form in the PRC to something inherent about ''sanwen'' and Chinese literary modernity.<br />
<br />
当时，我用普通的方式排斥这种现象: 这些共产主义走狗只是在文化沙皇的命令下模仿执政意识形态。<br />
<br />
但是即使是这样，我也无法解释这样一个事实，即这种写作采取了散文的形式。在许多方面都类似于1930年代流行的小品文，而在报告文学中已经有了一种蓬勃发展的文学非小说形式， 共产主义艺术的形式及其在社会中的地位体现出来。 换句话说，在我所知道的社会主义文化的逻辑中，没有任何东西像这些作家所写的那样需要散文的产生,而且我们很清楚，在社会主义制度下的作家没有写他们所喜欢事物的自由。 因此，我不得不把中国散文形式的持续存在归因于散文与中国文学现代性的某种内在联系。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 11:57, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
My current project intends to approach this question by comparing Chinese literary nonfiction practice in a number of different historical and cultural scenarios from the late imperial period to the present, and this presentation concerns specifically the ''sanwen'' under Chinese socialism.<br />
<br />
'''Socialist ''sanwen'' emerged from Communist base area writing practice''' <br />
<br />
Usually in the form of reportage, literary prose of the Yan’an period was concerned with dramatizing the social and spiritual superiority of regimented, collectivized life under the leadership of the Communist Party. Such writing often relied on direct comparisons between aspects of life in ”the old society” and life in Yan’an, or the between checkered past of characters who had been rehabilitated by the Communists and their newfound belief in the socialist community and its leaders. Though often idealized, examples given are meant to be concrete and taken as factual, and names are often named of military leaders and model laborers depicted. In this respect reportage is the most direct precursor of the lyrical essays of the People’s Republic.[ The civil war of 1946-1949 so disrupted the socialist base areas that much less of this kind of writing was produced; war correspondence once again became the order of the day]<br />
<br />
<br />
我打算对从古至今不同历史文化背景下的非虚构的中国文学作品进行比较，通过这些比较来理清这一问题，而这一介绍着重关注中国社会主义下的散文。<br />
<br />
'''社会主义散文是从共产主义根据地写作实践中产生的'''<br />
<br />
延安时期的散文通常以报告文学的形式，注重对共产党领导下的制度化、集体化生活的社会和精神优越性的戏剧化描写。这类写作往往依赖于对“旧社会”生活与延安生活的直接比较，或者是对被共产党改造的人物过去的坎坷经历与他们对社会主义社会及其领导人的新信仰的直接比较。虽然常常是理想化的，但所举的例子都要具体和真实，人物经常以军队领导人和劳动模范的名字命名。在这方面，报告文学是《人民共和国》抒情散文的最直接的前身[1946-1949年的内战扰乱了社会主义根据地，这类文章的产出因此少了许多，战地书信又成了日常的工作]。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_trans&diff=10804020201207 trans2020-12-07T01:03:50Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Dan 彭丹 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The story plays with the analogy of zhang and mu. By infusing them into an imaginary “curtain,” the framed narrative engenders dialogic interplay between the narrator and the bridegroom, between the bride and the spectator, and between the public and private spaces. Zhang and mu mean different things, though they converge in the compound zhangmu. Traditionally, the word zhang denoted a canopy hung around a bed and was used to isolate an inner space in bedroom, so it can hardly be identical with the meaning of curtain. However, indirectly, it reached to the sense of “curtain” through a translation of Jerrold D. William’s (1803-57) Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, a fiction of early nineteenth-century England. In 1915 Liu Bannong translated the title into “Zhangzhong shuofa” and published it in Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie.[ Liu Bannong, “Zhangzhong shuofa,” Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie, vol. 2, no.3 (March, 1915). Zhou should (June, 1922).]<br />
<br />
这个故事与“帐”和“幕”的比喻类似。通过将他们注入想象中的“窗帘”,框架化的叙事手法在叙述者和新郎之间，新娘与观众之间，以及大众与私密空间之间引发了交流互动。帐和幕有不同的含义，尽管两者可以组成帐幕这个词。“帐”这个字从传统意义上来说是表示悬垂在床边的罩篷，以及被用来隔离出卧室的内部空间，因此“帐”与“窗帘”的意思是不同的。然而，在杰罗德·威廉姆斯在19世纪初期创作的一本小说，《考德尔太太的帷幕演讲》的译文中，“帐”有了接近“窗帘”的感觉。1915年，刘半农将标题译为《帐中说法》，并在中华小说界发表。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:46, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The “curtain lectures” refer to Mrs. Caudle’s poignant complaints and derision at her husband, mixed with familial trivialities and comic effects. <br />
<br />
However, the overlap of zhang and mu was crucially related to a widely circulated myth about the Chinese origins of cinema, which was perhaps invented by Zhou himself. When Western-style movie theaters began to appear in late-1900s Shanghai, he was one of the earliest moviegoers. Like other Chinese at his time he also regarded film as a kind of “shadow play” (yingxi), meaning the performance on a screen. According to Zhou, the origins of “shadow play” can be found in the famous story in the Han Dynasty (206-24, B.C.), which tells of the Emperor Wu watching lady Li, dancing and singing, through a semi-transparent curtain.<br />
<br />
“窗帘讲话”指的是考德尔夫人对于丈夫的尖酸抱怨和嘲弄，具有家庭琐事的特点和喜剧效果。<br />
然而，帐和幕的重叠之处与广泛流传的中国影院起源的神话故事具有关键的联系,这神话故事很可能是周瘦鹃自己编造的。20世纪90年代后期，西方式的电影院开始在上海出现，周瘦鹃是最早一批常客之一。与同时代的其他中国人一样，他将电影看成一种“皮影戏”（影戏），意为屏幕上的表演。周瘦鹃认为“皮影戏”的起源可以追溯到汉朝（公元206-24年）最著名的故事中，故事讲述了武皇帝通过一个半透明的帘子看李姓女子唱歌跳舞。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:55, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
As the anecdote goes, to console his loss of the favorite lady, a sorcerer made a curtained room and asked the emperor to stay at a distance. In the night, called by the sorcerer, the spirit appears behind the curtain, amidst the candle-light, to perform as if she is alive.[ Zhou Shoujuan, “Tan yingxi” (On shadow play), in Ziluilan ji (Collections of violet) (Shanghai: Dadong shuju, 1922) 13-14. Its earlier version “Yingxi hua” appeared in the Free Talk (Ziyou tan), the literary page in Shenbao (June 20, 1919): 15.] Notwithstanding the historical merit of Zhou’s interpretation, what is significant here is that he reads history with a cinematic imagination, by which the terminology in everyday life changes - as occurred here the meaning of zhang (curtain) is substituted by that of mu (screen). <br />
<br />
In the mid-1910s Saturday and The Pastime (Youxi zazhi) magazines often appeared Zhou’s “film fiction” (yinxi xiaoshuo) - his accounts of what he had seen in the movie theaters.<br />
<br />
正如轶闻流传的那样，为了抚慰他痛失挚爱，一位巫师把一个房间装上帘子，要求皇帝保持一定距离。夜幕降临后，在巫师的召唤下，灵魂出现在窗帘后，在烛光中晃动，仿佛她还活着。[周瘦鹃，“谈影戏”，《紫罗兰集》(上海: 大东书局, 1922) 13-14。 它的早期版本“影戏话”出现在《申报》(1919年6月20日): 15的文学专栏《自由谈》中] 尽管周瘦鹃的诠释具有历史意义，但此处的重要意义在于他以电影般的想象力来理解历史，通过这种想象力，日常生活中的专门用语发生了变化——在这里，“帐”的含义被“幕”替代。<br />
<br />
20世纪10年代中期，《礼拜六》和《游戏杂志》经常刊登周瘦鹃的“影戏小说”——即他对自己在影院观看过的影片叙述。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 09:21, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
By the time he wrote this love confession, Zhou published a novella The Intimate Beauty (Hongyan zhiji), in which the hero recalls his lover on the “screen memory”: after he closes his eyes, he sees her beautiful image on a “snow-white screen” (xuebai de bumu) and hears her delicate voice; when he opens his eyes, they vanish and yet leaves a three-inch photograph in his heart.[ Zhou Shoujuan. Hongyan zhiji (Zhonghua tushuguan, 1917) 64.] However, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” has no description of watching film, yet the narrative itself is framed by the curtain; what was shown on the “screen” was verbalized and the text was visualized. With both meanings of zhang and mu, the “curtain” can be changed into a “screen,” onto which is projected the inner space of a wedding chamber in which the author makes his confession.<br />
在他写这篇爱情告白的时候，周出版了中篇小说《亲密之美》(《红颜之记》)，在这部小说中，主人公在“屏幕记忆”中回忆起了他的爱人:他闭上眼睛，在“雪白的屏幕”上看到了她美丽的形象，听到了她柔美的声音;当他睁开眼睛时，它们消失了，却在他的心里留下了一张三英寸的照片。(周秀娟《红颜智记》(中华图舒观1917)。然而，《九花帘幕》并没有对看电影的描述，叙事本身却被帘幕框住了;“屏幕”上显示的是语言，文字是可视化的。“窗帘”可以变成“屏风”，在“屏风”上投射出婚房的内部空间，作者在这里坦白。<br />
<br />
写下这篇爱情告白时，周寿娟已出版了一篇小说《亲密的美人》(《鸿雁集》)，男主人公以 "屏风记忆 "的方式回忆爱人：闭上眼睛后，在 "雪白的屏风"上看到了她的美丽形象，听到了她的娇声；睁开眼睛时，这些形象消失了，却在心里留下了一张三寸照片。 [ 周寿娟.鸿雁志集（中华图画馆，1917）64.]然而，《九花帘里》没有看电影的描写，但叙事本身却被帘子框住了，"屏风 "上显示的东西被口头化了，文字也被视觉化了。有了 "张 "和 "亩 "两个意思，"幕 "就可以变成 "屏"，在 "屏 "上投射出作者告白的婚房内部空间。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:37, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was visually imagined and represented in terms of the spaces divided into the inside and the outside, with the beholder within the curtain and the imagined beholders without. When Zhou fulfills his promise to his friends that he will show them his “love talk” in the Pictorial Story magazine, he makes a written tableau in Diderot’s sense, in which the beholder is absent and yet always implied.[ Jay Caplan. Framed Narratives: Diderot’s Genealogy of the Beholder (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 16. ] Here, we refer to the notion of “beholder” not only because of the visual nature of Zhou’s fiction, but also because it helps my imposition of the complex “subjectivity” in this paper.<br />
《九朵花的窗帘》以外部空间和内部空间的划分给人们视觉上的想象与呈现，旁观者在窗帘内，而想象中的旁观者则在窗帘外。周在兑现对其朋友承诺说他将会在《画报故事》杂志中给他们展示“爱情谈话”时，就按照狄德罗的感觉画了一幅画，在这幅画里没有旁观者，但却总是暗含其中。[杰伊·卡普兰。边框叙事：狄德罗的《旁观者的家谱》（明尼阿波利斯：明尼苏达大学出版社，1985年）16。]我们在这里提到周的小说中“旁观者”的概念，不仅仅是因为其视觉特点，也是因为它加深了我对这篇文章复杂的“主观性”的理解。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
At this juncture, if we look beyond this story merely as a signal of style change in Zhou’s love story from the tragic to comical, we might be curious at the positivity of the male voice as well as the brightness of the private space. In view of the erotic-sentimental tradition of the male gaze in private space, what does this love talk mean historically? Not only does it relate to the transformation of gender roles as well as the legitimacy of the private space in Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
This transformation occurred when this male gaze is empowered ideologically and technologically. Ideologically, it is imbued with the Republican ideal of nationhood and selfhood; technologically, it is, in this case, facilitated by the structural optical perception linked to the modern inventions such as photography and cinema. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
While depicting a tableau by freezing a moment in the past, Diderot disturbs his narrative by arranging the beholder as a part of the tableau. As Jay Caplan interpreted, the beholder is presented for the “psychological reason”: he functions as compensation to the loss which the family suffers as portrayed in the tableau.[ Ibid., 20-37.] In Zhou’s case, the beholder is called for the moral reason as his presence is neutralized to legitimize his love discourse in the private space. Especially the term qinghua “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” can be traced back to his short story published in 1913. It describes a young couple meeting and then whispering at a public place, unaware of someone who takes a snapshot of their intimate scene.[ Zhou Shoujuan. “Qinghua” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).]<br />
<br />
在通过暂停过去某个时刻来描绘一个场景时，狄德罗把旁观者设为场景的一部分，打乱了他的叙述。正如杰伊·卡普兰所解释的那样，旁观者的设定主要是出于“心理原因”，即他可以弥补场景中该家庭所遭受的损失。[ 同上, 20-37.] 在周廋鹃看来，旁观者的出现是出于道德原因，因为为使他的爱情故事在私人空间合法化，他的存在被中和了。特别是《九花帘幕》中情话一词，可以追溯到他1913年出版的短篇小说。该小说描述了一对年轻夫妇的会面，然后在公共场合窃窃私语，却没有意识到有人拍摄了他们的亲密场景。[ 周廋鹃. “情话” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).]<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
It reads like a joke, yet this reportage intriguingly justifies the privacy in the public space that is a controversy of the time. The beholder plays roles of witness, voyeurist, and more importantly, sympathizer. In portraying the photographic evidence with the story of the beholder, Zhou also becomes a sympathetic beholder. <br />
<br />
The dialogic characteristic of this love discourse lies not only in the consumerism of literary pleasure as the core of the Butterfly periodical culture, but also in the collective ethos of Butterfly community. In explicating how a bourgeois “love community” is born from the literature of intimate sphere in eighteenth-century England, Habermas says: “Subjectivity, as the innermost core of the private, was always already oriented to an audience.”[ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Trans. Thomas Burger with the Assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge and Mass.: The MIT Press, 1991) 49. ]<br />
<br />
<br />
这篇报道读起来像个笑话，但它为当时的一个争议，即公共空间的隐私进行了有趣的辩护。旁观者扮演着目击者，窥阴者，更重要的是，同情者的角色。在用旁观者的故事来描绘照片证据的过程中，周瘦鹃也成了一个有同情心的旁观者。<br />
<br />
这种情话的对话性，不仅体现在以文学享乐消费主义为核心的享乐时代文化中，还体现在享乐社会的集体精神中。哈贝马斯在阐述十八世纪英国亲密领域文学如何诞生一个资产阶级“爱情共同体”时指出:“主体性作为私人领域最深处的核心，一直是面向受众的。”[尤尔根·哈贝马斯, 《公共领域的结构转型:对资产阶级社会范畴的探究》. 托马斯·伯格, 弗雷德里克·劳伦斯协助 (剑桥, 马萨诸塞州.: 麻省理工学院出版社，1991)49. ]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 02:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Zhou’s pillow talk is more than a playful response to his friends’ voyeurist curiosity, it is fulfilled as a promise of love discourse. It might embody that “the ideas of freedom, love, and cultivation of the person that grew out of the experiences of the conjugal family’s private sphere were surely more than just ideology.”[ Ibid., 48. ]<br />
<br />
As the pillow talk unfolds, a complex subjectivity emerges. Against its ideological and technological backdrop, it is rhetorically and aesthetically embodied by a double voice, the poetics of persuasion and linguistic theatricality. The latter part of the story talks more about his family history. “When I was six years old, I became an orphan.” With this pathological tone, Zhou narrates how his father dies at that time and how his widowed mother single-handedly rears up four children by her hard work as a seamstress.<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他说给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:31, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明,男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大的往事。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:24, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
This family story is particularly heart-rending, yet it is more than that. He goes on, “When my father died, it happened in the year of 1900. The capital Beijing was totally in chaos, and thus, unexpectedly, the familial disaster and national humiliation fell on a boy of six years old.” A sense of tragic sublimation is effectively rendered as the boy is depicted as both victim and victor in these historical disasters, owing much to the rhetoric that makes the familial and national disasters “happen” to meet, and “thus” they “both” fall on the boy. The sentences sound as if it happened simultaneously when his father died and Beijing fell, and this narration enormously affects the reader. <br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
However, strictly speaking, there is some slippage between fact and fiction: according to Zhou’s chronicle, his father died 22 days after the fall of Beijing.[ Wang Zhiyi, ed., Zhou Shoujaun yanjiu zhiliao (Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1993) 20.] The dramatic simultaneity not merely refers the narrative strategy mixed with sentimentalism and patriotism, it reflects his own trauma as projected onto the screen memory of his childhood. Compared with other versions about his father’s death, this expression is most theatrical. <br />
<br />
Zhou’s childhood memory stores the collective traumatic experiences. The 1900 national catastrophe - the Boxers Uprising and the European Allies’ invasion in Beijing - becomes the emblem of national shame that had deeply imprinted on the Chinese minds. By such theatrical representation of his screen memory, Zhou’s love talk not merely appeals to his bride, the wedding chamber itself is transformed into a public space.<br />
<br />
然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，北京沦陷22天后，其父便亡，[王智毅，《研究资料研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧性的巧合不仅指向与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义，欧洲列强入侵北京，国家屈辱深深植根在中国人心中。周瘦鹃戏剧性展现其屏幕记忆，表明其甜言蜜语不仅仅说给他的新娘子听，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，其父在北京沦陷22天后逝世。[王智毅，《周瘦鹃研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧的同时性不仅指与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义和欧洲列强入侵北京这两大屈辱，深深植根在中国人心中。通过这种戏剧性的屏幕记忆表达，周瘦鹃的甜言蜜语不仅吸引了他的新娘，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Now the narrator is more aware of the presence of the public beholders. Aiming more at arousing collective pathos there inserts the scenario of his father’s death, which is also an intense moment for the author to test his rhetoric of theatricality. “When my father was dying, he was like a madman. Suddenly he jumped down from the bed and rushed out, raising his head toward heaven and shouting at the top of his lung, ‘My three sons, be heroes, join the army and fight!’ After these words, he returned to the bed and soon stopped breathing.”<br />
<br />
现在，叙述者更加意识到了公众旁观者的存在。 插入父亲去世的情景更多地是为了激起集体的悲痛，这也是作者检验自己的戏剧性描写能力的一个关键点。 “当我父亲去世时，他就像一个疯子。他突然从床上跳下来，冲了出去，抬起头向着天堂，高喊着说：“我的三个儿子，成为英雄吧，去参军作战！”说完这些话之后，他回到了床上，很快停止了呼吸。”--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
现在叙述者更加意识到公众旁观者的存在。插入他父亲死亡的场景，更多的是为了唤起集体的悲怆，这也是作者检验其戏剧性修辞的一个紧张时刻。“我父亲快死的时候就像是个疯子。他突然从床上跳下来，冲了出去，抬头望天，声嘶力竭地喊道:“我的三个儿子，要成为英雄，参军作战！”说完这些话，他回到床上，很快停止了呼吸。”--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
Permeated in the narrative of his family history are the characteristics of theatrical rhetoric: The period of his childhood is frozen, and his voice pretends to be childish; heavily emotionally charged words such as “tears,” “sorrow,” “bitter” are frequently appear between lines. Ordinary episodes are intensely represented with emphasis on the theatrical manners, gestures to deliver emotions at the highest pitch. The sentiments attached to the episodes tend to be collectively identified, such as his father’s death linked to the national calamity. There is excessive use of the adverbs to accumulate the force of persuasion and theatrical effect. No less noticeable is the role played by the narrator himself, who seems never hesitant to use the rhetoric of excess.<br />
<br />
在他的家族史叙事中渗透着戏剧修辞的特点:他的童年时期毫无生趣，声音假装稚嫩；字里行间经常出现“眼泪”、“悲伤”、“痛苦”等充满感情色彩的词语。普通的情节通过戏剧性的方式，传递情感的手势以及高昂的音调得以强烈地表现出来。与这些事件相关的情感往往是为集体认同的，比如他父亲的死与国家灾难有关。副词的过度使用是为了增强说服力和戏剧效果。同样引人注目的是叙述者自己扮演的角色，他似乎会毫不犹豫地过度使用修辞。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他的家族史叙述中充斥着戏剧性修辞的特征：他的童年时期很冷清，声音故作幼稚。 字里行间行间经常出现一些带有强烈情感的词，例如“眼泪”，“悲伤”，“苦涩”。 普通的情节以戏剧性的方式表现出来，强调最高音调传递情感的手势。 这些情节所附带的情感往往会为集体识别，例如父亲因国家大祸而去世。 过多使用副词来增强说服力和戏剧效果。 叙述者本人扮演的角色同样引人注目，他似乎会毫不犹豫地过度使用修辞。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Perhaps no modern readers would feel comfortable at the author’s praise of his mother for her traditional virtue; she twice cuts off a piece of flesh from her arm and cooks it as a medicine for her ill mother and husband. “From now on, we should remember what she did and do our best to be filial to her. We should erect, in our hearts, a stele for her filial piety, and a monument for her widowhood; by this means we can make her late life a happy one.” When he repeats this to his bride as a family legend and spiritual heritage, the use of rituals to enhance his language performativity nonetheless turn the persuasion into the grotesque. But we need to be cautious at the accusation of Zhou’s promotion of the “feudal rites” (fengjian lijiao), for the rituals are only used as symbolic value serving the new social structure and ideology in the early Republican era.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
According to the author’s love gospel, love must be mutual; this idea is embodied here through the narrative process itself: the act of telling the bride about his past as a token of trust aims to ask her to understand and trust him. While informing her of his intellectual paths in order to invite her to embrace his spiritual world, the pillow talk reveals its cultural meaning. Among other things, the story reveals himself as a human being who is promising yet ordinary, enduring yet fragile, and at the same time his family economy as unstable as unpredictable, indicating that they live in a hard time. It means that while sharing his bitter past and hopeful future, she must take up her duty and responsibility for him and his family.<br />
<br />
根据作者的爱情信条，爱情必须是相互的。这个观念也体现在作品的叙述过程中：新郎把自己的过往告诉了新娘，代表自己信任新娘，想要新娘理解并信任他。为了邀请她信奉他的精神世界，他告诉了她自己的智慧之路，同时这段枕边细语也反映出背后的文化内涵。在其他方面，这个故事也揭示了他是一个充满希望却又普通平凡，忍耐力强却又十分脆弱的人，同时，他的家庭经济难以预测，并不稳定，这也表明他们生活在一个艰难的时期。整个故事意味着：新郎分享了自己艰苦的过去，表达了对未来的希望，新娘就必须肩负起责任，对丈夫和家庭负责。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
根据作者的爱情信条，爱情必须是相互的。这个观点可以通过叙述过程本身体现出来：新郎把自己的过往告诉了新娘，代表自己信任新娘，想要新娘理解并信任他。为了邀请她进入自己的精神世界，新郎告诉了她自己的智慧之路，同时这段枕边细语也反映出背后的文化内涵。在其他方面，这个故事也揭示了他是一个充满希望却又普通平凡，忍耐力强却又十分脆弱的人，同时，他的家庭经济难以预测，并不稳定，这也表明他们生活在一个艰难的时期。这意味着新郎在分享他艰苦的过去和憧憬充满希望的未来的同时，新娘必须承担起对新郎和他的家庭的责任。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Zhou’s rhetoric of persuasion also implies that the bride is also at the center of a nuclear family, who must be subject to the new ethics. As the narrator further describes how he becomes a nationally famous novelist, due to his talent, diligence and proliferation in the “time of fiction in its full swing.” His jubilant voice echoes that of the beginning of the story while talking about how his family economy is drastically improved and afterwards the Zhous moves from the shabby old city area to the decent French concession. The narrator continues: “Ah, my phoenix lady, I have fully told you about my past. Having heard of this, you can understand what I have achieved so far is due to my bloody struggles with the hardships and difficulties, not to mention my mother who experienced as harder as thousands times than mine.”<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的说服性演讲也暗示了新娘在核心家庭中的中心地位，且新娘必须要遵守新的道德准则。正如叙述者在进一步叙述时说，自己成为一名享誉全国的小说家是因为自身的天赋、勤奋和在这个“小说的全盛时代”的有效推广。他兴奋的语调回应着故事开头关于他家里是如何富起来以及之后他从这个褴褛的旧城市搬到体面的法租界的叙述。叙述者继续说道：“哦，我的凤凰女神，我已将我的过去完完整整地告诉了你。听了这些，你就能明白，到今天为止我所取得的成就都是因为我面对困难进行的艰苦奋斗，更不用说我母亲，她所经历的比我要难一千倍。”--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:51, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃说服性的修辞也正暗示出新娘在核心家庭中的中心地位，而且新娘必须遵循新道德。正如叙述者一步步描述的那样：他凭借着自身的天赋和勤奋，借助“小说全盛时代”的发展契机，成为了一名享誉全国的小说家。故事开始时，他谈到自己的家庭是如何快速致富，之后又从破旧的老城搬到像样的法租界，兴奋的语调在空中回荡。叙述者继续谈到：“哦，我的凤凰女神，我已经把我的过往全部告诉你了。听完后，你就能明白我现在的成就都源于自己与困难艰苦奋斗，更别提我那比我经历了千倍困难的母亲了。”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The sentimental imploration conveys the bourgeois ethics no less than a “modern apocalypse”: this is a hard time yet it is promising and fair: everyone can get what he deserves by God’s gift as well as hard work. <br />
<br />
Inscribed with such allegorized trauma, the pillow talk implies a fatal bond between the individual, family and country, and thence elicits the “community of love.” Under the persuasion she is more than a wife and a lover - she is treated at the same time as a citizen. By the device of double curtain stated above, the narrative space is imbued with the authorial anxiety before the private and public beholders, indicating that the private realm by no means becomes autonomous without being identified with peoplehood and nationhood.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A Republican subjectivity is embodied in this domestic space by a speech act of persuasion, and it is the sentimentalism that naturalizes all social relations, blurring the private and public boundaries, and it ultimately functions in identifying them with the nationhood. In a sense, this peculiar love talk using the first person genre amalgamates diary, love-letter, autobiography and confession and displays a particular revelation of the community of love.<br />
<br />
Although the latter half of this monologue is basically dominated by historical references, Zhou’s strategy of using stylistic conventions such as verbal ornaments or rhythmic parallelism shifts to an appeal to cultural convention, such as ritual and tradition. Tradition is used as both value and form. Like the scars left on the mother’s arms, ritual is infused into the narrative to such an extent that the procedure of writing is culturally encoded. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Compared to the characteristic of pursuing modern fashion in the first half of the story, here Zhou reveals more of his cultural conservatism. Rooted in the traditional “Teaching of Affection,” his love discourse aims at solving complex problems in a modern society; what separates Zhou from his contemporaries is that he does not intend to make his philosophy of love a perfect, unified one. In the “community of love” lies a paradox. Habermas says: “The jeopardy into which the idea of the community of love was thereby put, up to our own day, occupied the literature as the conflict between marriage for love and marriage for reason, that is, for economic and social considerations.”[Habermas, 47.]<br />
<br />
与故事的上半部分追求现代时尚相比，这里体现的更多是周瘦鹃的文化保守理念。 他的爱情话语植根于传统的“情感教学”中，旨在解决现代社会中的复杂问题。 与同时代作者不同的是，周瘦鹃无意让自己的爱情哲学完美无缺、完全统一。 因为在“爱的共同体”中存在一个悖论。 正如哈贝马斯所说：“直到今天，爱的共同体带来的风险还一直给文学界造成着困扰，因为在这其中一直存在一个矛盾，那便是因爱而婚，还是因理（经济和社会考量）而婚。”[Habermas, 47.]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
As shown by Zhou’s own love story, he never forgot his first lover named “Violet,” and thus we come to realize that behind this pillow talk is the rueful truth: for him this is a “marriage for reason,” not a “marriage for love.” As he says to his bride, since he failed in the first love, he never had intention of making a family, and he married her in order to make his mother happy. Probably this loving experiment with baihua is a compromise for better communicating with the bride who is almost illiterate.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay'''<br />
<br />
Nicole Huang<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In her preface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meanings of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure-it should be like words written on water, or 'flowing words,' as 'liuyan' would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of 'rumors' or 'gossip'-a second literal meaning of the word 'liuyan'-flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年出版的《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层含义：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”的内涵，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年在日本侵占的上海出版的散文集《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层隐喻：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，或者说流言的字面意义“飘走的话语”，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”或“绯闻”的内涵——流言的第二个字面意义——自由自在地四处漂流，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，在1994被年日本占领的上海出版的《流言》的标题是来自于英语谚语“written on the water”。她还阐述了该隐喻背后的深层含义：她不希望自己的作品像水一样流过即逝，或者就像“流言”的字面意思一样，短暂的存在最终消逝；但是她希望他的作品可以像“谣言”一样-另一个“流言”的字面意思，可以迅速传开，被大众所知。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Chang's use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang's long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
<br />
张爱玲的自反性语言开辟了一个新的途径，使得好奇的读者或者评论家都可以仔细的观察到整个创作性作品的形成过程。因而一个极度具有创造性思维的女性作家第一次像一篇文章一样被解码。张爱玲极具特点的标题创造体现了她努力的在不同的写作体裁边缘尝试，正因如此，形成了批判性/学术性和质疑性的个人文章的区别。此处她的写作背后的命名机制不仅只是双关那么简单。这个标题不仅展现了一个新的写作风格，同时也顺势的表达了再创造的文学形式的体裁风格。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of 'gossip' or leisurely talks, Chang's naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer's commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation. <br />
<br />
I argue that Chang's experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is channeled into her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay. The choice of the essay form is central to Chang's aesthetic vision.<br />
<br />
尽管言语被描述为像流淌着的水，而杂文类型却被比作“闲话”或悠闲谈话的流畅构造，但张爱玲在这里对自己写作的命名不仅提供了对文学写作实践的评论。 更重要的是，应将文体的重命名理解为女作家对中国近代历史上特定时期的文化生产状况的评论，其特征是战争和占领引起的巨大动荡和破坏。<br />
<br />
我认为张爱玲的时间，空间和上海被占领这样的特殊历史环境的经验被用在她重新定义现代论文的通用身份的尝试中。 论文形式的选择对于张爱玲的审美观至关重要。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 08:46, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然文字被描述为像流动的水，散文体裁被比作“闲谈”或闲谈的流畅结构，但张爱玲在这里为自己的写作命名，这不仅仅是对文学创作实践的评论。更重要的是，散文体裁的更名应该理解为中国近代史上对一个特定时期的文化生产状况的评论，这一时期是以战争和占领造成的巨大动荡和混乱为特征的。<br />
<br />
余以为张爱玲对上海被占领的时间、空间和特定的历史环境的体验，是她尝试重新定义现代散文的共性特征。散文形式的选择是张氏美学视野的核心。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:05, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然用词像流水一样流畅，这种散文体裁可与“流言蜚语”或闲散的言语的流畅结构相比，但是张对她的作品的命名不仅仅展现了对文学创作实践的点评，更重要的是，这应该被理解为女性作家对中国现代史中某个特定时期的文化生产状况的评述，而这个时期，受战争及外国侵略的影响，是颠覆且破碎的。<br />
<br />
我认为张在时间、空间及上海被占领后的历史背景上的体验促成她尝试去重新定义现代散文的一般特性。散文形式的选择是张的美学观的核心。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
The writer's self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. The essay is made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenges the literary conventions, searches for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promotes herself as an important cultural figure. <br />
<br />
The modern essay also serves to contribute concrete forms to a life that appears void of any structure; in other words, Eileen Chang uses the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one's imagination and fantasy can anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. <br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
My paper highlights two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang's essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness. I argue that the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for the woman writer in her entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, a woman writer as an individual can become a concrete historical subject within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化的两个方面的生活：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚作为一种重要的物质意识形式的话语。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个无止境的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化的试验场。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化生活的两个方面：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚话语作为一种重要的物质意识形式。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更广泛的社会领域之间边界不稳定和持续变化的试验场所。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:46, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In her perface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meaning of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure – it should be like words written on water, or ‘flowing words,’ as ‘liuyan’ would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of ‘rumors’ or ‘gossip’ – a second literal meaning of the word ‘liuyan’ – flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.[ See Chang, Nightmare in the Red Chamber (Taipei: Huangguan, 1977). The book, containing Chang’s essays on authorship, themes, structure, character portrayal, and linguistic construction of the most renowned vernacular narrative of pre-modern China Dream in the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), is representative of her literary and artistic pursuits during her American years (1955-1995).]<br />
<br />
张爱玲（1920-1995）在对《红楼梦》的演说中回想起流言，这是她1944年在日本占领的上海发表的散文集的标题，源于英语谚语“写在水上。”她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不希望自己的写作能忍受–就像在水面上写的单词或“流淌的单词”一样，“流言”的字面意思是暂时徘徊并最终流失。但她也希望她的写作能被赋予“谣言”或“八卦”的精神（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，并引起广泛的听众。[参见Chang，Nightmare in the红楼（台北：皇馆，1977）。这本书包含了张的文章，涉及到《红楼梦》中前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她在文学和艺术上的追求。美国年（1955-1995）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 06:52, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲（1920-1995）在《红楼梦魇》一书的前言中谈到，“流言”意思源于英文谚语“写在水上，这也是她一部散文集的名字，出版于1944年在日本占领的上海后。她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不指望自己的作品渊远流长–就像“在水面上写的文字”或“流淌的文字”一样，一如“流言”的字面意思，暂时徘徊并最终流逝，但她也希望她的写作能带有“谣言”或“八卦”的意味（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，获得广泛的关注。[参见张爱爱玲，《红楼梦魇》（台北：皇冠出版社，1977）。这本书是张爱玲在美时期（1955-1995）对前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事小说《红楼梦》的研究成果，包含多篇文章，涉及《红楼梦》的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她的文学和艺术追求。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:26, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Chang’s use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang’s long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对自我反省语言的运用为好奇的读者/批评家提供了一个窗口，让他们得以深入了解正在创作中的作品的内在过程，因此，女作家的创作心理成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了，张爱玲通过长期努力在不同写作类型之间寻求界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人论文之间的区别受到了质疑。在这里，她作品命名背后的机制不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。标题不仅代表了一种新的散文写作风格，也代表了一种突出这种再造文学形式一般身份的相应方式。<br />
<br />
张爱玲对自我反省性语言的运用为好奇的读者/评论家提供了一个窗口，通过这个窗口，他们可以观察到创作过程中相当详细的过程，因此女作家的创作心态成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了张爱玲长期以来努力探讨不同文体之间界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人散文之间的区别受到质疑。在这里，她的作品命名方法不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。这个标题不仅表明了一种新的散文写作风格，而且也代表了一种相应的方式来突出这种革新的文学形式的共性特征。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
During the writing process, the essay writer creates a structure of both containment (language captures the sentiments of a particular moment) and opening (language is unlimited because it lacks definite meaning or substance); and during the reading process, the immediacy and the transitoriness of the messages conveyed in these linguistic structures are first to be comprehended.<br />
<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of ‘gossip’ or leisurely talks, Chang’s naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer’s commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation.[ For a standard historical account of cultural activities in occupied Shanghai, see Ke Ling, Zhuzi shengya (My Writing Career) (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986); also see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).]<br />
<br />
<br />
在写作过程中，散文作者创造了一个兼含遏制（语言要抓住具体某个时刻的情感）与开放（由于缺乏具体的含义或内容，语言是无限制的）的结构；阅读过程中，在这些语言结构中所表现的信息转瞬即逝的特点首先为读者所理解。<br />
<br />
用词像流水一样流畅，这种散文体裁可与“流言蜚语”或闲散的言语的流畅结构相比，张对她的作品的命名不仅仅展现了对文学创作实践的点评，更重要的是，这应该被理解为女性作家对中国现代史中某个特定时期的文化生产状况的评述，而这个时期，受战争及外国侵略的影响，是颠覆且破碎的。[关于上海占领区的文化活动的标准性历史记录，参见柯灵《煮字生涯》（太原：山西人民出版社，1986）； 另见傅葆石的“Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai”, 1937-1945 (斯坦福: 斯坦福大学出版社, 1993).]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:10, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang launched her writing career during the early 1940s, and her most important works, including the essays collected in Written on Water and the short stories collected in Chuanqi (Romances), were completed between 1943 and 45. Chang’s fictional writing has been subjected to abundant critical scrutiny since the late 1960s and early 1970s when scholars such as C.T. Hsia and Shui Jing started to reclaim the significance of Eileen Chang and promote her as one of the finest and the most original writers in the scene of twentieth century Chinese literature.[ See Shui Jing’s Paozhuan ji (Casting a Brick to Attract Jade) (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1969) and Zhang Ailing de xiaoshuo yishu (The Fictional Art of Eileen Chang ) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1973), as well as C. T. Hsia’s Aiqing, Shehui, Xiaoshuo (Love, Society, and Fiction) (Taipei: Chunwenxue chubanshe 1970), both published in Taipei. The three books were published in the midst of a renewed infatuation with the woman author shared by readers in Chinese-speaking communities outside of mainland China after 1949.] But the study of Chang’s essay writing is a different story.<br />
<br />
张爱玲的创作生涯始于20世纪40年代初，她的重要作品包括散文集《流言》和短篇小说集《传奇》，均创作于1943年至45年间。虽然自20世纪60年代末70年代初以来，张爱玲的小说创作一直受大众批评，但是当时夏志清和水晶等学者已经开始重新认识张爱玲的意义，并称她为“二十世纪中国文学界最优秀、最具原创性的作家之一“【详见水晶的《抛砖记》（台北：三民书局，1969）和《张爱玲的小说艺术》（台北：大地出版社，1973）以及夏至清的《爱·社会·小说》（台北：纯文学出版社，1970），均在台北出版。这三本书的出版之时，正值1949年后中国大陆以外的华语读者对这位女作家重新产生迷恋之时。】但对张爱玲的散文写作的研究则是另一番景象。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Since the most popular essays by Chang were written during the same period as her fictional writing, namely, between 1942 and 45, and some of her essays conveniently provided the concrete historical and biographical background against which the plot in her fictional writing was possibly designed, Chang’s essay writing has so far been read as the best commentaries to her fictional writing, particularly to the short stories collected in the acclaimed Romances.[ Wu Fuhui, among many others, argues that Eileen Chang’s essays are only interesting when read together with her short stories. He uses the essay entitled ”Jingyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes) as an example, arguing that the essay should be read as providing the necessary historical context to our understanding of Chang’s highly acclaimed novella Qingcheng zhi lian (Romance Among the Ruins). I disagree with Wu because the emphasis of the essay clearly lies elsewhere: it presents a social gallery of figures – a group of female college students, all from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whose brilliance of personality is brought out by the war. The novella, however, focuses more on the falling apart and the reconstructing of the beauty legend. Here the generic distinctions between fiction and essay are instrumental in piecing together the meanings of these two literary texts. See Wu’s preface toZhang Ailing sanwen quanbian (A Complete Collection of Eileen Chang’s Essays) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi chubanshe, 1995).] While such an approach to Chang’s essays can provide a coherent discussion of Chang’s literary writing as an entirety, it may overlook the specificities of the essay genre in the Chinese context and may also downplay the cultural significance of such formalistic experiments.<br />
<br />
由于张爱玲最受欢迎的散文写于她的小说创作的同一时期，即1942年至45年之间，而且她的一些文章方便地提供了具体的历史和生平背景，她的小说创作中的情节有可能是在这样的背景下设计的。因此，张爱玲的散文创作至今被解读为对她的小说创作，特别是对广受好评的《罗曼史》中收录的短篇小说最好的评论。[吴福辉等人认为，张爱玲的散文只有在与她的短篇小说一起阅读时才有意思。他以《灰烬中的故事》一文为例，认为这篇文章为我们理解张爱玲备受赞誉的小说《倾城之恋》（又名《废墟中的浪漫》）提供了必要的历史背景。我不同意吴的观点，因为这篇文章的重点显然在别处:它呈现的是一个人物的社会画廊——一群来自不同文化和民族背景的女大学生们，她们因战争而焕发出个性的光辉。然而，他的中篇小说更多地关注的是美人传奇的分崩离析和重构。 在这里，小说和散文之间的一般区别有助于拼凑这两种文学文本的意义。参见《张爱玲散文全集·张爱玲散文集》（杭州:浙江文艺出版社，1995）吴氏序。]这样的研究方法虽然可以从整体上对张爱玲的文学写作进行连贯的讨论，但却可能忽略了中国语境下的散文体裁的特殊性，也可能淡化这种形式主义实验的文化意义。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:07, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chang’s experiments with the modern essay serve to position her at a critical moment of literary transformation in modern China. While women writers had actively participated in both fictional and poetic writing since the early decades of this century, the essay genre had been monopolized by male writers. Three major essay traditions had already been canonized when Eileen Chang took up the essay as a vital means of representation. The ‘minor essay’ (xiaopin wen) tradition, represented by Zhou Zuoren and Lin Yutang, is characterized by a light and relaxing tone, a simple and elegant diction, political disengagement, wit, and a leisurely mood.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在现代散文领域做出的尝试实践将其置于现代中国文学转型的关键时期。尽管自世纪初的几十年起，女性作家便积极进行小说与诗歌写作，散文领域却被男性作家独占了。当张爱玲把散文作为一种重要的表现手段时，三种主要的散文传统已被神圣化。其中包括以周作人、林语堂为代表的小品文传统，其特点是语调轻快，用词简雅，政治疏离，风趣幽默，心境悠闲。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:11, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
The ‘miscellaneous essay’ (zawen) tradition, represented by Lu Xun and several generations of followers, including a group of leftist writers residing in Gudao (Isolated Island) Shanghai (1937-41), highlights intellectual sharpness and rhetoric eloquence, advocates active engagement with reality, and maintains the belief that literary writing should be employed as a powerful tool for social criticism and political intervention. And finally, the ‘refined essay’ (meiwen) tradition, represented by Zhu Ziqing and many writers from both the Literary Studies Circle (Wenxue yanjiu hui) and the Creation Society (Chuangzao she) since the 1920s, advocates linguistic experiments, whose goal is to create a language of refinement and elegance, and imageries that embody highly aesthetic and sensual qualities.[ Most standard literary histories published in China do not attempt to distinguish between different styles of modern essay writing. The zawen (the miscellaneous essay) tradition is often highlighted as the mainstream style for its definition of literature as social and political critique. These standard literary histories do acknowledge the lyrical qualities of xiaopin wen and meiwen but fail to situate the practice of these alternative essay writing styles in their cultural and intellectual contexts. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao (History of the ”New Literature” in China), Tang Tao and Yan Jiayan, Zhongguo xiandai wenxueshi (Modern Chinese History), and Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature).]<br />
<br />
杂文派的代表人物有鲁迅及其几代追随者，包括一群上海孤岛时期（1937-41）的左翼作家。他们强调知识分子的敏锐和修辞口才，倡导积极接触现实，并坚持认为文学写作应用作社会批评和政治干预的有力工具。最后是美文派，诞生于20世纪20年代，代表人物是朱自清以及来自文学研究会和创造社的许多作家。他们倡导语言实验，旨在创造一种精致优雅的语言，以及体现高度审美和感官品质的意象。[中国出版的大多数标准文学史并不试图区分不同风格的现代散文作品。杂文经常被视作主流文体，因为它把文学定义为社会和政治批判。这些标准的文学史确实承认了小品文和美文的抒情品质，但未能将这些另类散文的写作风格实践置于他们的文化和知识背景中。参考王耀，《中国新文学史稿》，汤涛、严家炎，《中国现代文学史》，钱理群等，《中国现代文学三十年》。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Most of the women writers in 1940s Shanghai experimented with essay writing. In fact, women produced a larger quantity of essays than any other literary genre. In addition to Eileen Chang, many women writers of the period, including Su Qing (1917-1982), Guan Lu (1908-1982), Pan Liudai (1922-?), and Shi Jimei (1920-1968), also discovered the generic fluidity embedded in the essay form. Compared to their experiments with other literary genres, such as fiction, drama, and poetry, it is in women’s essay writing of the period that the discourses of female gender and sexuality, issues of the domestic sphere, and the structures of social institutions such as marriage are most vigorously challenged and thoroughly reformulated. The essay genre is the most powerful literary form adopted by women writers such as Eileen Chang in their efforts to constantly redefine the boundaries between life and work, and to meticulously weave the space of private life together with the space provided by literary writing.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代，上海大部分女作家都尝试了散文写作。事实上，比起其他的文学体裁，女性写了更多的散文。除了张爱玲，许多当时的女性作家，包括苏青(1917-1982)、关露(1908-1982)、潘柳代(1922-?)和史集梅(1920-1968)也发现了散文形式中通用的流动性。比起尝试其他文学体裁，例如：小说，戏剧，诗歌，在这个时期的女性散文写作中，女性性别与性的论述，国内领域问题，社会制度结构如婚姻，受到了极大的挑战以及被彻底的重新制定。散文体裁是最有力的文学形式，女性作家如张爱玲使用这种文学体裁去不断重新定义生活和工作的界限，将私人生活的空间与文学写作提供的空间精心编织在一起。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
In the following sections, I will argue that the woman writer’s experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is not only mirrored in her representation of individual experiences of the war, the occupation, and the everyday, but also in her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay and to reinvent a kind of prose language that most vividly captures the transitional as well as eccentric nature of the essay genre. I will also argue that the choice of the essay form is central to Chang’s aesthetic vision.<br />
<br />
我在接下来的章节里会指出女性作家（指张爱玲）对于时间，空间和上海被占领这个特定历史环境的经历不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的个人经历的再现，也反映在她对于重新定义现代散文的尝试中，她试图重新创造一种散文体语言，这种语言可以最为清楚的捕捉到散文体裁的过渡和古怪的本质。我还将点明散文形式的选择是张爱玲审美视野的中心。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:07, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在下面章节中，我将证明这个观点，上海被侵占，这位女作家处于这样的时间，空间以及特殊环境下，她的经历不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的描述中，而且体现在她的意图中，她试图重新定义现代散文的通用身份，重塑一种散文语言，这种语言能极生动地展现散文体裁的过渡以及古怪性质。我也会证明文章形式的选择对张爱玲的审美视野至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在接下来的章节里，我会指出张爱玲对于时间、空间和上海被占领的特定历史背景的经历，不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的个人经历的再现里，也反映在她重新定义现代散文的尝试中，她试图重新创造一种散文体语言，这种语言可以最为清楚地捕捉到散文体裁过渡和古怪的本质。我还将点明散文形式的选择是张爱玲审美视野的核心。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The female writer’s self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. I will analyze Chang’s essay writing of the period to demonstrate how the genre was made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenged the literary conventions, searched for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promoted herself as an important cultural figure. The uniqueness of this body of literary texts lies in the fact that it presents a version of women’s literature set within the context of the wartime occupation while interacting with urban commercial and print culture in 1940s Shanghai.<br />
<br />
在1940年代的上海都市文化领域中，张爱玲作为女性作家的自我定位主要体现在她对体裁的运用上。我将通过分析张爱玲的那个时代的散文作品来展示体裁如何成为一个重要的话语场，在这个场内，张爱玲公开挑战文学传统、追寻文学创作和日常生活实践中的其他选择、促使她自己成为一位著名的文化人物。这部文学作品的主体部分的独特性在于它展现了1940年代上海战争占领期交织着都市商业和印刷文化的背景下的女性文学版本。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:36, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪40年代的上海都市文化领域中，张爱玲作为女性作家的自我定位主要体现在体裁运用方面。我将通过分析张爱玲的那个时代的散文作品，从而来展示体裁如何成为一个重要的话语场，在这个场内，张爱玲公开挑战传统文学，追寻文学创作和日常生活实践中的其他选择，这也促使她成为一位著名的文化大师。这部文学作品的主体部分的独特性在于，它展现了20世纪40年代上海战争占领期间，都市商业和印刷文化的背景下的女性文学。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代，女作家张爱玲在上海城市文化领域中的自我定位体现在她对该类题材的运用上。 我将分析张爱玲的这段时期的散文写作，以展示该流派如何成为一个重要的话语场所，在那儿女作家公开挑战文学习俗，在文学写作和日常生活实践中寻找替代品，并将自己提升为重要的文化人物。 这部文学作品的独特之处在于，它展现了战时职业背景下的女性文学作品，同时与20世纪40年代的上海商业和印刷文化交流互动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 08:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代，女作家在上海城市文化领域的自我定位，在她对文体的挪用中得到了体现。我将分析张爱玲这一时期的散文写作，以证明这一体裁是如何成为一个重要的话语场所的。在这里，这位女作家公然挑战文学惯例，在文学写作和日常生活实践中寻找替代方案，并将自己提升为一个重要的文化人物。这套文学文本的独特性在于，它呈现了一个以战时占领区为背景的女性文学版本，同时与1940年代上海的城市商业文化和印刷文化互动。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:07, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Essay and the aesthetics of liminality'''<br />
<br />
How, then, does Eileen Chang write the experience of war and turbulence into the transformed form of the modern essay? While the sense of impending massive destruction is omnipresent in her essay writing of the 1940s, the representation of the specific historical situation is not delivered through any direct social and political reference to the immediate present; instead, the presence of history is often concealed under the masquerade of an aesthetic vision put together by a meditative inward gaze, an orchestra of city sounds, and an imagined border of the urban civilization endangered:<br />
<br />
''散文和边际美学'''<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲如何将战争和动荡的经历写入现代散文的转变形式中呢？ 尽管在20世纪40年代，她的文章中彰显着无处不在的巨大的毁灭感。但这并不是通过直接的社会和政治因素作为参考来直接描述特定的历史情况。 相反，历史的存在通常隐藏于美学感官的掩饰下。这些美学观感由冥想的内心凝视，城市声音的管弦乐队和想象中的城市文明边界共同构成：<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 19:51, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Alone I sit next to a candle, thinking about the past and the present. What I have been busy doing for the last two years will probably be shattered soon. …… I should have a sense of it.<br />
<br />
I was alone on the dusky balcony after Su Qing left. Suddenly I saw a tall building far away, on whose edges hung a great swatch of rouge-like redness. At first I thought it was the reflection of the setting sun on the windows, but on second glance, I realized that it was a full moon, rising crimson above the city. I thought to myself, “so this is what they mean by turbulent times.” In the evening mist, the borders of Shanghai were gently rising and falling in the distance, resembling layered mountain peaks, although there are no mountains surrounding our city.<br />
<br />
我独自坐在蜡烛旁，思考着过去和现在。我这两年一直在忙的事情可能很快就会被破灭。我应该有这样的感觉。<br />
<br />
苏青走后，我独自站在昏暗的阳台上。突然，我看到远处的一幢高楼，它的边缘挂着一大片红晕。起初我以为是夕阳映在窗户上的倒影，但再一看，我意识到这是一轮满月，在城市的上空升起一片绯红。我对自己说，“这就是他们所说的动荡时代。在晚霞中，上海的边界在远处徐徐起伏，就像层层叠叠的山峰，尽管我们的城市周围没有山。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:27, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
我独自坐在蜡烛旁，思考着过去和现在。我这两年一直在忙的事情可能很快就会破灭。我应该做好准备。<br />
<br />
苏青走后，我独自站在昏暗的阳台上。突然，我看到远处的一幢高楼，它的边缘挂着一大片红晕。起初我以为是夕阳映在窗户上的倒影，但再一看，我意识到这是一轮满月，在城市的上空升起一片绯红。我对自己说，“这就是他们所说的动荡时代。在晚霞中，上海的边界在远处徐徐起伏，就像层层叠叠的山峰，尽管我们的城市周围并没有山。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:48, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
I pondered the fate of many people, including myself. I began to have a melancholy sense of what we call destiny. Such intimations normally connote self-involvement and self-pity, but I now think that they might suggest something altogether more broad. When the peace and security of the future finally do arrive, they will no longer belong to us; at the present moment each of us can only strive to comfort ourselves……[ See ”Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing), in Tiandi yuekan (Heaven and Earth Monthly) 19 (April, 1945).]<br />
<br />
This impressionistic silhouette of the city is none other than the dramatic presence of modern history itself. Here, history is visualized, flattened, and inevitably spatialized. The image of the city and the force of history intermingle into one performative moment, instantaneously captured by the ‘I,’ the woman writer, who sits on the balcony of her private home, looking out into the distance, watching the border of the city rise and fall, observing the currents of history come and go, as if the entire setting was a mere act in a long and winding chuanqi (romance) play.<br />
<br />
我思考了很多人的命运，包括我自己。我开始对我们所谓的命运感到忧郁。这种暗示通常意味着自我参与和自我怜惜，但我现在认为，它们可能意味着一些更广泛的东西。当未来的和平与安全最终到来时，它们将不再属于我们;此时此刻，我们每个人只能努力安慰自己。（见《我看苏青》，载于一九四五年四月的《天地月看》十九章）<br />
<br />
这个印象主义的城市剪影不是别人，正是现代史本身戏剧性的存在。在这里，历史被可视化、扁平化，并且不可避免地被空间化。城市的形象和历史的力量混合在这表演的一刻。与此同时，被“我”这位女作家捕捉到。这位女作家,坐在她的私人住宅的阳台,望向远处,看边境城市的兴衰,观察历史潮流的来来去去,整个背景好似一场漫长而曲折的传奇（浪漫）剧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 07:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
History in Eileen Chang’s representation becomes a narrative which rejects any deep structure or profound meaning. Characterized by chaos and reversal, history appears to be no more than a shadowy presence in our consciousness:<br />
<br />
In this era, the old things are falling apart, while the new ones are still in formation. Before the high tide of the era arrives, all certainty is but an illusion. We feel that everything in our everyday life is out of order to a terrifying degree. An individual belongs to a certain historical era, but our present era is sinking like a shadow; therefore we feel we have been deserted. In order to prove our own existence, we want to grasp onto something that is real, something fundamental. We then seek help from our ancient memory, the memory of human beings who have lived through various times in history.<br />
<br />
张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史以混乱和反转为特征，在我们的意识中似乎只不过是一个影子：<br />
在这个时代，旧事物正在分崩离析，而新事物还未形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有确定的东西都只是一种幻觉。我们觉得我们日常生活中的每件事混乱不堪，令人害怕。每个人都属于某个历史时代，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失，我们觉得自己被遗弃了。为了证明我们自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些基本的东西。然后，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，即曾经经历过不同时期的人的记忆。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史的特点是混乱和逆转，历史只不过是我们意识中的一个影子:<br />
在这个时代，旧事物在瓦解，而新事物正在形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有的确定事物不过是一种幻觉。我们感到日常生活中的每件事都是混乱不堪的。每个人都属于一个特定的历史时期，但是我们现在的时代像一种影子;因此，我们感到被遗弃了。为了证明自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些重要的东西。接着，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，也就是那些经历了不同历史时期的人的记忆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史具有混乱性和反转性，不仅仅是存在于我们意识中的一个影子：<br />
<br />
这个时代，旧事物在分崩瓦解，新事物在不断形成。在时代高潮到来之前，所有确定的事物不过是一种幻觉。让人害怕的是，我们意识到我们日常生活发生的一切都失去秩序。每个人都属于某个特定的历史时期，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失。因此，我们感觉自己被遗弃了。为了证明自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实并重要的东西。接着，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，也就是那些经历了不同历史时期的人类的记忆。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 08:13, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Looking back helps us regain more clarity and closeness than we might gazing far into the future. We then have a strange feeling about the reality that surrounds us. We begin to suspect that this is an absurd and antiquated world, gloomy and bright at the same time. Between memory and reality, there often arise unbearable discrepancies, resulting in a perplexing but subtle agitation, an intensified but indefinable struggle.[ See ”Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), in Written on Water, 1944. This translation is based on an earlier version by David Wang. See Wang, ”Fin-de-siècle Grandeur: Contemporary Women Writers’ Vision of Taiwan,” Modern Chinese Literature 5.4 (1992) 45-65.]<br />
<br />
回首过去而不是遥望未来有助于我们重新获得更清晰、更亲近的感觉。然后我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑这是一个荒诞而古老，阴暗而光明的世界。在记忆与现实之间，常常会产生难以忍受的差异，从而产生一种令人费解却又微妙的骚动，一种剧烈但难以言喻的斗争。[《写在水上》，1944年。此翻译是基于王大卫的早期版本。见王，“台湾当代女性作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4（1992）45-65。]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
回顾过去可以帮助我们重新获得比凝视遥远的未来更清晰和亲近的感觉。我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑，这是一个荒谬而陈旧的世界，黑暗与光明同时并存。在记忆和现实之间，常常会出现难以忍受的差异，导致一种令人困惑但微妙的激动，一种加剧但难以定义的挣扎。参见《自己的写作》，载于《水上记》，1944年。这个译本是根据王大卫的早期版本翻译的。参见王，“世纪末的宏伟:台湾当代女作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4(1992)45-65。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Here, history is no longer presented as a linearly progressing course; instead, it is broken into numerous fragments which can be reorganized and attributed with fresh meanings. The passage quoted above demonstrates Eileen Chang’s fascination with various liminal sites, in time or in space. Throughout her writing career, Chang has created many liminal sites, such as the illusory realm between memory and reality, the brief moment between past and present, and the intersection between life and work, fiction and poetry, stage movements and everyday events. The best of Chang’s writing often captures these transitional moments or sites, and the subjectivity in question is often taken over by a deep sense of uncertainty:<br />
<br />
在这篇文章中，历史不再被视为一个线性发展的过程。相反，它被分为许多片段，人们可以重新组织并赋予其新的含义。上面引用的这篇文章显示出了张爱玲对时空中边缘点的着迷。在她的整个写作生涯中，张爱玲创造了许多边缘点，例如记忆与现实之间的虚幻境界、过去与现在的短暂衔接点、以及生活与工作、小说与诗歌、舞台动作和日常事件之间的交汇点。 张爱玲著作的出彩之处往往在于，捕捉到了这些过渡节点，使得主观性常常被一种深深的不确定性所取代：--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:56, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这篇文章中，历史不再被视为一个线性发展的过程。相反，它被分为许多片段，能够被重新组织和赋予新的含义。上面引用的这篇文章显示出了张爱玲对时空中不同阈限点的着迷。在她的整个写作生涯中，张爱玲创造了许多阈限点，如记忆与现实之间的虚幻状态、过去与现在的短暂衔接点、以及生活与工作、小说与诗歌、舞台动作和日常事件之间的交汇点。 张爱玲最好的作品往往捕捉到了这些过渡瞬间或者节点，这使得主观性的问题常常被一种深深的不确定性所取代：--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 07:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
An individual can afford to wait, but an era is transient (''cangcu''). Things are being torn apart, and an even larger destruction is on its way. Someday our civilization, no matter how glorious, will become the past. I often use the word “desolation” (''huangliang'' 荒涼) because there is a premonition of impending danger underlying my thought. <br />
At such a ‘transient’ moment in history which will probably ‘sink’ like a ‘shadow’ in an instant, how, then, should an individual, in this case, a woman writer, position herself?<br />
Make yourself famous as early as possible! If success comes too late, it will not be as enjoyable. …… Hurry! Hurry! Otherwise it will be too late! Too late!<br />
<br />
一个人可以等待，一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天我们的文明，不论多么辉煌，都将成为过去。我经常使用“荒凉（desolation）”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着即将降临之危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:32, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个人或许等得起，但一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天，我们的文明不论曾经多么辉煌，都终将成为过去。我常使用“荒凉”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
These short, choppy sentences deliver a sense of urgency. To choose to define oneself through writing is then related to the woman writer’s understanding of the particular historical situation in 1940s Shanghai. It is a sense that the era is only a transitional moment in human history – the end is imminent and a new historical landscape will take shape. The imperative to make oneself famous then has to do with an urgent need to “occupy” a space in a swiftly dimishing landscape and to hold on to a moment that is constantly slipping away. Eileen Chang’s writing then highlights a very personal moment at a time when any individual voice is likely to be shattered by the grips of the modern warfare and eventually engulfed by the ruins of history.<br />
这些简短、不连贯的句子给人一种紧迫感。选择通过写作来定位自己，与张爱玲对20世纪40年代上海特殊历史境遇的认识有关。这给人的感觉是，这个时代只是人类历史的一个过渡时刻，结束迫在眉睫，新的历史景观即将形成。因为迫切需要在瞬息万变的情况下“占据”一个空间并抓住某个转瞬即逝的时刻，所以必须成名。张爱玲的作品强调了一个非常私人的时刻，在这个时刻，任何个人的声音都可能被现代战争的猛烈冲击所粉碎，并最终被历史的废墟所吞没。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:59, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些简短、起伏不定的句子给人一种紧迫感。选择通过写作来定义自己，则关系到女作家对20世纪40年代上海特定历史境遇的理解。这是一种感觉，这个时代只是人类历史上的一个过渡时刻--末日即将到来，一幅新的历史景观将会形成。因此，让自己出名的当务之急是迫切需要在迅速变暗的风景中“占据”一席之地，并抓住一个不断溜走的时刻。张爱玲的作品则突出了一个非常个人化的时刻，在这个时刻，任何个人的声音都可能被现代战争的控制所粉碎，最终被历史的废墟吞没。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Here the woman writer is going against her time by seeking an appropriate literary form and an adequate literary language to capture the essence of this fleeting moment in modern Chinese history. The new form and new language should be adequate to represent the dream-like world, the fragmented time, and the vanishing horizons of urban civilizations.<br />
<br />
Chang’s choice of the essay genre is then consistent with her unique vision of history and her fascination with what I would call ''the aesthetics of liminality''. One cannot find a more appropriate literary genre than the modern essay to capture the liminal qualities of that specific historical milieu. The essay is a genre that is positioned between the careful structuring of fiction and the free flow of poetry. The essence of essay writing lies exactly in its lack of essence or its eccentricity. The modern essay is a genre that is itself transitional.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
The liminal qualities of the modern essay are further enhanced in various textual strategies Chang uses to challenge generic identities in literary conventions. For instance, Chang’s essay entitled “Shuangsheng” (Duet) represents one of the most intrepid literary experiments undertaken during the period. The influence of the roundtable talk, a prominent genre in popular culture, had penetrated the realm of literary writing. In “Duet,” literary writing takes the form of a mini roundtable talk. At the beginning of the essay, like most of the roundtable talks recorded in popular journals of the time, the surroundings and the atmosphere are provided in a painstakingly descriptive language. The conversation takes place in a coffee shop, where Eileen Chang, the narrator, and Mo Meng (named Yan Ying elsewhere), Chang’s female companion, indulge themselves in coffee and pastry while starting their rambling chat about anything and everything:<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Having seated ourselves, we started chatting about a variety of things in great detail. When our topics became more weighty, she [Mo Meng] said: “You know what, this seems a lot like a roundtable discussion.”<br />
<br />
Within the space provided by the essay, the two women then continue to talk about a variety of topics: the language of love in both China and the West, the construction of romance in different cultural contexts, gender relationships inside and outside wedlock, fashions for women of different age groups, and the distinctiveness of the Japanese mentality. The fragmentary and all-inclusive qualities (''san'') of modern prose style (''sanwen'') had already been fully elaborated by Eileen Chang; the format of a roundtable talk coincides with the need to push the limit of modern prose style to its most eccentric, unrestrained, and far-ranging extreme.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
For a discussion of the roundtable talk as an important cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai, see Nicole Huang, ''Written in the Ruins: War and Domesticity in Shanghai Literature of the 1940s''. The roundtable talk became an instrumental cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai. It was a new form of showcasing women writers by placing words (voices) and images (descriptions of their presence, and photographs) all on display. Major newspapers and journals of the period all used this strategy to advertise their publication, promote their circles of new writers, and take part in the construction of an expanded community put together by publishers, editors, writers, artists, and readers.<br />
<br />
The structure of this essay also bears resemblance to that of a one-act play. The beginning passages can be viewed as stage descriptions. The action takes place in one quiet afternoon when two protagonists are engaged in a highly performative dialogue, and theatrical effect is enhanced when dramatic moments arise from time to time throughout the recorded conversation.<br />
<br />
对于圆桌谈话作为20世纪40年代上海的一个重要文化风尚的讨论，可参见Nicole Huang“写在废墟上：20世纪40年代上海文学中的战争与家庭生活”。圆桌谈话促进了上世纪40年代上海的文化风尚。这是一种通过言语（声音）和画面（关于仪态的描写以及照片）的共同作用来表现女性作家的新形式。当时的主流报纸和期刊都利用这一策略来宣传自己的出版物，推广自己的新作家圈子，并参与到建设一个由出版商、编辑、作家、艺术家和读者共同组成的不断扩大的社群中。<br />
这篇文章的结构也与独幕剧有相似之处。开头的段落可以被视作舞台描写。故事发生在一个寂静的午后，当时两个主角正在进行一场极具表演性的对话，在对话中，戏剧性的时刻不时出现，戏剧性因而得到增强。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:02, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
“Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing) presents Chang’s further effort to test the generic boundaries of the modern essay. The author effortlessly switches back and forth between her characterization of Su Qing and a close-up of the narrative self gazing inward. At one point in the essay, the author/narrative self pauses and admits that, in this essay devoted to Su Qing, she has actually devoted much more space to self-portrayal. Most of the time, the essay reads like an internal monologue: the narrative self is immersed in a constantly flowing display of numerous intimate moments. The free flowing of a sequence of random thoughts and the switch back and forth between different personas are fictional and theatrical devices used to further widen the representative capacities of the modern essay.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
While “The Way I See Su Qing” imports fictional devices into the form ‘minor essay,’ an earlier essay entitled “Siyu” (Whispers) demonstrates an even more radical experiment, that is, to turn the genre into a new form of autobiographical writing. The title of the essay takes on double meanings: while ‘''siyu''’could mean ‘private talks,’ it could also mimic the lowered and fragmented voice used in talking about the most intimate moments in one’s private life. The narrative voice in the essay whispers, murmurs, and gossips. Nothing substantial is presented; instead, segments of life, tinted with the haziness of childhood memory, are organized in the re-invented prose form, like a stream of thoughts or a random layout of scenes. The technique used here closely resembles montage: segments of the past are presented like flashbacks, and moments of free-association further remind the reader of the constantly blurred boundaries between memory and reality, past and present. <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The essay entitled “Tongyan wuji” (A Childish Discourse) presents another example of writing autobiography within the space of the modern essay. Sometimes the way that moments of childhood memory are narrated resembles the use of close-ups in film-making. The following episode even makes a direct reference to cinema:<br />
<br />
I stood in front of the mirror and watched my trembling face, with tears falling down in streams. My face looked like a close-up in a movie. I told myself, grinding my teeth: “I want revenge. One day I will take my revenge.”<br />
<br />
Each sub-section in this essay – ‘Money,’ ‘Fashion,’ ‘Food,’ ‘Gentleman,’ and ‘Brother’ – can be viewed as one filmic long take, and there is no direct connection between them. The entire essay is put together by a series of long takes. Within the space of the modern essay, there appear to be many of these extended fictional or cinematic moments. Sometimes, description of details of clothing, or simply the pattern on a piece of fabric, can contribute to the shaping of a dramatic moment, the formation of a narrative structure. The following passage from the same essay is a good example:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Japanese printed fabrics. Each bolt is a work of art. Each time I bring one home, before handing it over to a tailor, I repeatedly unroll it and bask in the image. A small Burmese temple is half shielded by the leaves of a palm tree; rain is falling incessantly through the reddish brown haze of the tropics. A pond in early summer, the water coated with a layer of green scum, above which float duckweed and fallen lilac petals, purple and white. Seemingly a fitting scene for a song lyric set to the tune “Laments of the South of the Yang-tze” (Ai Jiangnan)……<br />
<br />
Reading some of these highly aesthetic moments in Chang’s essay writing, we might argue that it is within the space provided by the modern essay and by means of cinematic devices that the fragmentation of conventional fictional language becomes inevitable.<br />
<br />
日本的印花面料。每一根螺栓都是一件艺术品。每次带回家，在交给裁缝之前，我都会反复展开，沐浴在画面中。一座缅甸小庙被棕榈树叶半遮半掩，雨水透过热带的红褐色雾气，不停地落下。初夏的池塘，水面涂上一层绿色的水垢，上面漂浮着鸭舌草和落下的丁香花瓣，紫白相间。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景......<br />
<br />
解读张爱玲散文写作中的一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间里，并且借助电影手段，传统小说语言的碎片化才成为必然。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:56, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本织锦。每一匹日本织锦都是一件艺术品。每当我将一匹日本织锦带回家，我会反复展开织锦，醉心于上面的图案，然后才会交给裁缝。一座缅甸小佛寺在棕榈树叶的遮蔽下若隐若现；热带地区红褐色的雾霭之中，细雨绵绵。初夏的一方池塘里覆盖着一层绿色水垢，上面漂浮着被风吹落的丁香花瓣，白的紫的都有。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景……<br />
<br />
阅读张爱玲的散文作品，尤其是其中一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文提供的空间里，并借助电影手段，传统小说语言的断层化已成必然。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:10, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
'''Essay and the making of a new prose language'''<br />
<br />
Few writers in twentieth-century China are as persistent as Eileen Chang was in constantly experimenting with new literary language. In her essay entitled “Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), Chang retrospectively remarks on her use of a new fictional language in the novella ''Lianhuantao'' (Linked Rings):<br />
<br />
I adopted the language from traditional fiction on many occasions when writing the novella ''Chain of Rings''. In the story, Cantonese people and foreigners who lived fifty years ago speak like figures walking out of [the world of] ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' (Jing Ping Mei), …… My original intention was: I already created a considerable distance in space by writing about a romanticized Hong Kong from the point of view of a Shanghainese; I also created a distance in time by writing about the Hong Kong of fifty years ago. Therefore I intentionally adopted an antiquated diction to represent such a doubled displacement (''shuangchong juli''). ……<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
To situate the story in both a remote time and a distancing space endows the writer with abundant freedom in her choice of language. By returning to traditional literature to search for imaginative inspiration and expressive resources, Eileen Chang has redefined, on the discursive level, the cultural as well as political connotations of the modern vernacular language. For a modern reader who has considerable knowledge of the May Fourth literature, Chang’s fictional language presents the reader with a remote system of referentiality by using diction and narrative tone characteristic of those used in classical Chinese novels such as ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
What, then, are the characteristics of Chang’s linguistic experiments in her essay writing of the period? The titles of both the essay collection ''Written on Water'' and the essay “Whispers” can be viewed as the author’s own commentaries on the language she has chosen for the transformed essay genre. While literary language is compared to voices whispering, murmuring, or gossiping, and while words can eventually flow away just like water, the practice of writing then is a process of both embracing and breaking away from words, and the meanings that are presented no longer contribute to a system of enclosure. Chang’s naming highlights the indeterminacy of literary language and directs the reader’s attention to the uncertainty embodied in both the structure of the essay and the language that it employs.<br />
<br />
In the opening passage of the essay “Tan nüren” (Talking about Women), collected in ''Written on Water'', in a whimsical and relaxed tone, Eileen Chang cites a characterization of ‘women’ presented in a small pamphlet written by an English author:<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言实验上有什么特点呢？ 散文集''写在水面上''和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言的评论。 文学语言被比喻为声音的窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张先生的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者注意到文章的结构和所采用的语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言研究方面的特点是什么？ 散文集《写在水面上》和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言评论。 文学语言被比喻为窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张爱玲的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者去注意文章的结构和所采用语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Westerners refer to sinister and cruel (''yinxian kebo'') women as ‘cats.’ I ran across a pamphlet recently, written in English, entitled ''Cats'', which does nothing else except condemn women. It is not that what is said in it has never been expressed by other people. Interesting remarks (''juanyu'') concerning women are scattered everywhere and it is just not easy to collect them all together. But here this pamphlet is really a compilation (''ji qi dacheng'') [of what has been said about women]. <br />
<br />
Chang then invites her readers to accompany as she glances through a group of quotes she has selected and translated from that pamphlet, much of which is a condemnation of women’s erotic potential. Not a single word of explicit judgment is offered throughout the essay by Chang, nor are the assumptions contained in this pamphlet about the gendered character of each individual expressly challenged. After reading Chang’s essay, a reader might wonder to what extent has the ‘real’ author behind the masquerade of the narrative internalized such an ‘othered’ male view?<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本小册子，是用英语写的，册子标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把它们收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:54, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本英文小册子是用英语写的，标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把这些言论收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:28, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
And to what extent is Chang’s translation ‘faithful’ to the original text? The original author’s name remains unmentioned in Chang’s essay, making it difficult to assess the extent to which the original ‘male’ narrative voice has been twisted or distorted by Chang’s rendition. The narrative voice appears to be a composite in those quotes and is even more so in the rest of her essay. One approach to reading Chang’s essay is then to regard the quotation as an integral part of the whole essay, to view it as Eileen Chang’s own linguistic construction, a construction which already contains her critique. Within these quotes, the message is complicated, and presented in several levels. Some of the quotes are reminiscent of an archetypal ‘male’ voice:<br />
<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
This kind of fictional and temporal distance is also characteristic of Chang’s short stories written during the period. David Wang argues that the fictional world presented in the short stories in ''Romances'' points to a remote system of referentiality for modern readers by interweaving many ”unreal” elements such as the fantastic, the grotesque, the decadent, and the dark romanticist. See Wang, ”Nü zuojia de xiandai guihua: cong Zhang Ailing dao Su Weizhen” (Modern Ghost Narratives by Women Writers: from Eileen Chang to Su Weizhen), in ''Zhongsheng xuan-hua: sanshi yu bashi niandai de Zhongguo xiaoshuo'' (Heteroglossia: Chinese Fiction of 1930s and 1980s).<br />
<br />
这种虚构性和时代性的距离，也是他在这一时期创作的短篇故事的特点。王大卫认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《女作家的现代鬼故事:从张爱玲到苏伟真》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十、八十年代小说)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种虚构和时代的距离，也是这一时期张爱玲创作短篇故事的特点。王德威认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说)。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:01, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虚构的时代距离感也是这一时期张爱玲短篇故事的特点。王德威认为《浪漫》这一短篇故事中呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“非真实”元素，例如：奇幻、怪诞、堕落和黑暗浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个距离久远的指称系统。参见王的《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》（杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:59, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种虚构与时间的距离，也是张这一时期短篇小说的特点。王大卫认为，浪漫小说短篇小说所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义等“不真实”元素，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的参照系。见王，《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说)。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:47, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
“The physical construction of women is so exquisite; therefore, their spiritual construction is incomplete. This is predictable. We just cannot be over-critical of them [women].” <br />
<br />
“If you do not seduce a woman, she would say that you are not a man; if you do, she would say that you are not a man of the upper-class.” <br />
<br />
“The only difference between a woman and a dog is: a dog is not as spoiled as a woman is; a dog does not wear jewelry; and – thank God! – a dog does not speak!”<br />
<br />
The expected readers of the pamphlet ''Cats'' are married middle-class men. According to Eileen Chang, the original author admits that, “a man, after having just fought with his wife, would feel comforted if he reads this pamphlet before he goes to bed.” Functioning as a psychological therapy, the expected reading process should yield pleasure which soothes grievances and unhappiness in one’s ‘actual’ life.<br />
<br />
“女人的身体构造如此精巧，所以她们的精神构造是不完整的。这是可以预见的。我们不能对她们（女性）过分挑剔。”<br />
“如果你不勾引女人，她会说你不是男人；如果你这样做，她会说你不是上流社会的男人。”<br />
“女人和狗的唯一区别是：狗不像女人那样娇惯；狗不戴首饰；还有——感谢上帝！–狗不会说话！”<br />
短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个男人刚和妻子吵架后，如果在睡觉前读这篇小说，他会获得慰藉。”预期阅读过程作为一种心理治疗，应该会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的不快。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“女人物质方面的构造实在太合理化，精神方面未免稍差，那也是意想中的事，不能苛求。”<br />
<br />
“如果你不调戏女人，她说你不是一个男人；如果你调戏她，她说你不是一个上等人。”<br />
<br />
“女人与狗唯一的分别就是：狗不像女人一般地被宠坏了；它们不戴珠宝；而且——谢天谢地！–它们不会说话！”<br />
<br />
短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个刚和太太吵过嘴的男子，上床之前读这本书，可以得到安慰。”作为一种心理疗法，阅读过程中的预期会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的悲伤和不快。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:24, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Within this reading process, through the mediation of a narrative language, the imagined male reader takes upon the implicit point of view built in the assumed male author’s account, manipulates and appropriates the construction of the female image, and displaces his sense of anger, repression, and alienation, or his frustrated desire for control and domination, onto such a constructed image. For a married man, the unsuccessful threats toward his wife in real life can then be successfully prosecuted on a textual level.<br />
<br />
在这一阅读过程中，通过叙事语言的中介，想象中的男性读者接受了假定男性作者叙述中的隐含观点，操纵和挪用了女性形象的建构，转移了他的愤怒、压抑和疏离感，或是他对控制和支配的挫败欲望，变成了这样一个构建的形象。对于已婚男人来说，现实生活中对妻子的不成功的威胁可以在文本层面上成功地继续下去。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:32, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such a female erotic image depicted in a seemingly unambiguous male text could generate a variety of culturally coded specific meanings and gendered differences. However, the tone of Chang’s language seems to invalidate the possibilities of applying an ideologically charged critique of these messages. Her narrative tone is relaxed, whimsical, playful, humorous, and somewhat ironic. The message transmitted in these quotes is impure, it has been reworked, and already contains a ‘look.’ This ‘look’ is interwoven with a sense of irony. This is even more explicit in some of her other quotes:<br />
<br />
一个看似毫不含糊的男性文本中所描绘的一个这样色情的女性形象，可能会引发各种文化编码的具体含义和性别差异。然而，张爱玲的语调似乎使对这些信息进行意识形态化批判的可能性失效。她的叙述基调是轻松，异想天开，顽皮，幽默，并有点讽刺。在这些引语中传递的信息是不纯洁的，它已经被改写了，并且已经包含了一个“看呐”。这个“看呐”与一种讽刺感交织在一起。这一点在她的一些其他语录中更为明确：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:32, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
“A man can flirt with a bar waitress in the squalid bar without losing his reputation; yet an upper-class woman is not even allowed to blow a kiss at a postman from afar. We can then draw an inference that men are different from women – no matter how low they [men] bend their backs, it is never difficult for them to stand up straight again.” <br />
“Generally speaking, women do not need the variety of stimulants in their lives that men do. Therefore, we should tolerate a man if he transgresses boundaries during his leisure time, in order to enliven his weary body, [to expel] his worries, [and to accomplish] his unrealized aspirations.”<br />
<br />
“一个男人可以在肮脏的酒吧里和女招待调情而不会失去他的名誉；然而，一个上层社会的女性却不允许向远方的邮差飞吻。所以我们可以推断出男人和女人是不同的，无论他们（男人）的腰弯的多低，对他们来说，要重新站起来从来都不难。”<br />
“一般来说，女人不像男人那样需要各种各样的兴奋剂，因此，我们应该容忍一个男人在闲暇时间越界，为了活跃他疲惫的身体，驱逐他的忧愁，实现他已经未尽的愿望”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 13:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
These quotes should be understood as mainly Eileen Chang’s own rendition. Through the ironic tone, the message becomes twisted, distorted, highly dramatized, and thereby transformed into parody and ridicule. If Eileen Chang does seek to tease out this assumed male voice, such an attempt proceeds through the creation of a narrative distance, a sense of innuendo, a skillful rewording of the male voice, and not through any explicit charges or critiques. The reader is left to herself to read between the lines, to speculate about the hints, and to screen out the mixed messages.<br />
<br />
这些引言应主要理解为张爱玲自己的演绎。 通过讽刺的语气，信息变得扭曲，变形，极度戏剧化，从而变成了模仿和嘲讽。 如果张爱玲确实想挑逗这种假定的男性声音，这种尝试则需要通过建立叙事距离，无影无踪的感觉，对男性声音的熟练措辞，而不是通过任何明确的指控或批评来进行。读者需要自己逐行细读，来推测线索，冰筛选出混合的消息。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Despite the absence of an explicit criticism toward this unambiguous male voice, Eileen Chang’s presentation has revealed the fact that the male denunciation of the public effects of a female eroticism is itself manifested in an eroticized form. Such an eroticized form has been dramatized to the extreme by Chang in her skillful rewording. A reader would ponder whether this male denunciation addresses the danger of the placing women in public display or is itself a public display of women as eroticized subjects? Eileen Chang’s appropriation of the male denunciation of female eroticism becomes a doubled affirmation of the much textualized eroticizing potential of female images, which makes it difficult to pin down the ‘femaleness’ of her use of literary language. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
In her recent study of Eileen Chang’s fictional writing, Rey Chow defines Eileen Chang’s ‘femininity’ as predominantly associated with ”irrelevant” details. In the picture painted by Chow, ‘detail’ carries a distinctively ‘feminine’ label and is defined as ”the sensuous, trivial, and superfluous textual presence that exists in an ambiguous relation with some larger ‘vision’ such as reform and revolution.” Chow argues that Eileen Chang constructs a different vision of modernity and history through ”a release of sensual details whose emotional backdrop is often that of entrapment, destruction, and desolation.” Eileen Chang’s understanding of culture, therefore, carries a ”powerfully negative affect.” See Rey Chow, Chapter III ”Modernity and Narration: in Feminine Detail” in her ''Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East'' (Minnesota and Oxford: University of Minnesota Press, 1991) 85.<br />
<br />
Rey Chow’s emphasis on the intricately related history of details and the feminine in the Chinese case is certainly illuminating in the sense that she suggests a new perspective to define the significance of Eileen Chang’s writing and thus a new way of critiquing the construction of a history of modern Chinese literature as a whole.<br />
<br />
在最近对张爱玲小说作品的研究中，周蕾将张爱玲的“女性气质”与不拘小节联系在一起。在周蕾的画作中，“细节”贴上了明显的“女性化”标签，带有“感性、微不足道以及在改革和革命这样的大事面前画蛇添足”的含义。“周蕾认为张爱玲创造了一种独特的视角来表现历史和现实，即释放情感细节，这些情感往往是诱惑、毁灭和隔绝，因而张爱玲对文化的理解带有一种“强烈的负面影响”。参见周蕾的著作 ''女性与中国现代性：中西方的阅读政治性''的第三章“现代性与叙事：女性化细节”（明尼苏达和牛津：明尼苏达大学出版社， 1991），第85页。<br />
<br />
周蕾对复杂的细节史与中国女性的强调是令人有所启发的，她提出了一种新的视角来界定张爱玲的作品的意义，从而为整个中国现代文学史的建构提供了一种新的评论思路。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
最近在对张爱玲小说作品的研究中，周蕾将张爱玲的“女性气质”主要与“不相关”的细节联系在一起。周蕾的画作中“细节”被贴上了明显的“女性化”标签，带有“感性、微不足道以及在改革和革命这样的大事面前画蛇添足”的含义。周蕾认为张爱玲创造了一种独特的视角来表现历史和现实——释放情感细节，这些情感往往是诱惑、毁灭和隔绝，因而张爱玲对文化的理解带有一种“强烈的负面影响”。参见周蕾的著作《女性与中国现代性：中西方的阅读政治性》的第三章“现代性与叙事：女性化细节”（明尼苏达和牛津：明尼苏达大学出版社， 1991），第85页。<br />
<br />
周蕾对复杂的细节史与中国女性的强调是令人有所启发的，她提出了一种新的视角来界定张爱玲的作品的意义，从而为整个中国现代文学史的建构提供了一种新的评论思路。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, in Rey Chow’s categorization of Eileen Chang, a new type of femininity is classified, whose characteristics are intimate, domestic, sensuous, pre-rational, trivial, obsessed with its sexual being, yet embodying subversive strength and transgressive potentials. This seemingly fresh and autonomous femininity does take one thing for granted, that is the unproblematized association between the female, the domestic, and trivial details. Rey Chow’s emphasis on feminine detail may have endowed Eileen Chang’s writing with a critical power deriving from the marginal position that she is inscribed in; but to domesticate Chang, to enclose her within woman’s traditional domain of the home, could also lead to the draining of the heaviness and the other intellectual potentialities in Chang’s writing.<br />
<br />
不过，周蕾在将张爱玲的作品分门别类时，分类出一种新型的女性气质，这种气质具有亲密、顾家、性感、前理性、细心、着迷于性感本身，但却表现出毁坏性的力量以及违背道德的潜力。这种看上去新奇而自发的女性气质却也忽略了一样事情——女性与家庭、琐事之间联系毫无问题。周蕾对于女性气质的强调赋予张爱玲的作品一种权力批判——这来自其所处的边缘位置。但若要使张爱玲适应家庭生活，使她待在传统女性所应当待着的家中，将会导致其作品中的沉重以及其他智力潜能逐渐消失。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The terms ”protective language” and a ”neutralizing middle tongue” are lifted out of Catharine Stimpson in her discussion of Gertrude Stein’s writing. According to Stimpson, ”Stein’s coding of sexual activities becomes a privileged and a distinguished ‘anti-language’,” that is, a language of ”anti-societies.” Stimpson argues against some other critics’ attempts to ”adjectify” Stein’s work as ”female.” She suggests that Stein’s language is ultimately ”impure,” it is ”linear as well as pluridimensional,” it is ”male” as well as ”female.” Stimpson argues that Stein’s literary language is neither ”female,” nor ”an unmediated return to signifiers freely wheeling in maternal space.” See Stimpson, ”The Somagrams of Gertrude Stein,” in ''The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives'', edited by Susan Rubin Suleiman.<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁格·斯坦因的著作时，“保护性语言”和“中立的中性语言”一词被从凯瑟琳·斯廷普森删除。斯廷普森认为，“斯坦因对性行为的编码成为一种特权和一种独特的'反语言'，即'反社会'的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容”为“女性”的说法。她认为斯坦的语言最终是“不纯正的”，既是“线性的又是多维度的”，既是“男性的”又是“女性的”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性的”，也不是指“无意中回归到指代者而自由地进入母体空间”。请参见苏珊·鲁滨·苏蕾曼编辑的《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中格特鲁德·斯坦的躯体语言。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁德·斯坦因的作品时，凯瑟琳·斯廷普森讨论了“保护性语言”和“中和性的中间语言”。根据斯廷普森的说法，“斯坦因对性行为的编码变成了一种特权和独特的‘反语言’”，也就是说，是一种“反社会”的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容为女性”。她认为斯坦因的语言最终是“有杂质的，“它是“线性也是多元维度的”，它是“男性”也是“女性”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性”，也不是“在母体空间中自由转动的能指的无中介回归”。参见斯廷普森德《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中的格特鲁德·斯坦因的躯体语法，苏珊·鲁宾·苏莱曼主编。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Julia Kristeva suggests that ”the very dichotomy man/woman as an opposition between two rival entities may be understood as belonging to metaphysics”; it must be dismantled through ”the demassification of the problem of difference, which would imply, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘flight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” Kristeva refers to this as ”a strategy of disintegration.” This strategy is a ”true radicalism” in such attempts ”to undo given identities, to go beyond the policy of creating counter-identifications.” See ”Women’s Time” (translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake) in ''Signs'' (Autumn, 1981).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
那么，分析张爱玲语言中的女性特征也许不是一种恰当的方法。我们无法十分肯定地说她的作品体现了近代中国文学中的女性传统，这一传统以五四文体为特征。张爱玲作品中的文化边缘性、对细枝末节的关注、蕴含的家庭特征以及对男性家长和性别关系的调侃无一不促使评论家将其打上女性特质的标签。但是我们不能将张爱玲的语言简单地划分为两个对立面：一方面是传统的父权话语，另一方面则是实验性的反父权话语，她的文学语言无疑是模糊的，是一种位于两种状态分界处之上的语言，是一种糅合了“男性”与“女性”与一身的语言。在很多情况下，她的语言都表现出一种所谓的“保护性”、“中性的口吻”，或者说是一种隐没而非彰显的语言。张爱玲的作品语言的复杂性让我们无法将其中的语法、表达以及用词性别化，这种语言正是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，消除了分化不同身份的可能性。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 03:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In Eileen Chang’s essay writing, it is finally the narration itself that becomes a site where conflicting cultural discourses meet and interact. The narrative voice does not embody or point to any authoritative discourses: it is neither the passive receiver of a system of accomplished social customs and values containing stereotypes of passive femininity, nor a spokeswoman for a ‘progressive’ nationalist ideological agenda. While history is viewed as transitory and fragmented, the language used to account for this history is no longer something which is ideologically or rhetorically charged. It is not a language to account for truth and beliefs, it is a language of ‘paradox’ and ‘enigma’; it is a ‘counter-language.’ Chang’s use of language serves to recuperate a remote tradition that is incompatible to the present historical situation, and to restore a different set of voices which are inconsonant with the chorus of her time.<br />
在张爱玲的散文写作中，最终是叙事本身成为了冲突的文化话语相遇和互动的场所。叙事的声音不体现或指向任何权威的话语:它既不是既有社会习俗和价值观体系的被动接受者，也不是“进步的”民族主义意识形态议程的发言人。虽然历史被认为是短暂的和支离破碎的，但用来解释这段历史的语言不再是某种意识形态或修辞上的指控。它不是一种解释真理和信仰的语言，它是一种“悖论”和“谜”的语言;它是一种“反语言”。张爱玲对语言的运用是为了恢复与当前历史形势不相容的遥远传统，并恢复与她那个时代的合唱不一致的一套不同的声音。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Chang’s essay writing indicates that the coherence of a so-called women’s literary writing tradition in modern China is a mere fabrication. The linguistic constructions in Chang’s essay writing playfully appropriate male fantasies, turning them into props in the creation of a new literary space. By turning structures of male fantasies into narrative devices, and by transforming male voices to enhance the theatrical effect of essay writing, Eileen Chang has demonstrated a much more confident gesture in offering a critique of gendered constructions in both the larger social context and the sphere of literary writing.<br />
<br />
'''Essay and the Invention of Life in Wartime'''<br />
<br />
In the preface to her 1988 collection entitled '''Xuji''' (The Sequel), Eileen Chang confesses that she has been a “loyal believer” in Greta Garbo’s philosophy of life:<br />
张爱玲的散文著作揭示了这样一个事实，现代中国所谓的女性文学写作传统不过是对男性文学写作传统的伪造。她的散文著作中，语言结构巧妙地借用了男性的幻想思维，将其转换为创造新文学空间的支柱。张将男性幻想结构转换为叙述手法，并且转换男性的叙述口吻，以此提高散文写作所带来的戏剧影响，在广大的社会背景条件下和文学创作方面，提出了性别结构批评，对此，她信心满满。在其1988年出版的名为《战争时代的散文与发现》一书的前言中，张爱玲坦白说，她是葛嘉丽·宝格生活哲学的忠诚信仰者。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:48, 3 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
张爱玲的散文作品表明现代中国所谓的女性文学创作传统的一致性仅仅是捏造而已。她在散文作品的语言结构中巧妙地运用了男性的幻想，并将其转化为创造新文学空间的支柱。通过将男性幻想结构转变为叙事手法，并通过转换男性的叙述口吻来增强散文写作的戏剧效果，张爱玲在更大的社会背景和文学创作领域中以更加自信的姿态提出了性别结构批评。<br />
<br />
'''散文和战时的生活发现'''<br />
<br />
在她1988年出版的名为《续集》(The Sequel)一书的序言中，张爱玲坦诚地说她一直是葛丽泰·嘉宝人生哲学的“忠实信仰者”：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 07:37, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
For several decades, relying on make-up and acting skills, she [Garbo] lived the life of a recluse, seldom seen through by other people. Her life-time belief was that “I want to live by myself.” …… Why is it that writers also have a hard time preserving the privacy of their lives? <br />
<br />
These sentiments could not have been expressed back in the 1940s. The solitude of the latter half of Chang’s life, that is, the four decades since she came to America in the fall of 1955, forms a sharp contrast to the glorious moments during the first half of the 1940s, particularly the years of 1944 and 1945, when she and Su Qing emerged in the cultural scene of Shanghai simultaneously and became brighter stars than the most acclaimed movie actresses and popular singers.<br />
<br />
几十年来，她[Garbo]依靠化妆和表演技巧，过着隐居的生活，很少被其他人看到。她一生的信念是“我想一个人生活”。……为什么作家在保护自己的生活隐私方面也遇到困难？<br />
早在1940年代就无法表达这些观点。Chang的后半生的孤独，即自1955年秋天来美国以来的四个十年，与1940年代上半叶，尤其是1944和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明的对比。 当她和苏青同时出现在上海的文化舞台上时，他们成为了比最受好评的电影女演员和流行歌手更耀眼的明星。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:34, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
几十年来，她(嘉宝)凭借着化妆和表演技巧，过着避世的生活，很少被其他人看到。她的人生信条就是“我想一个人过活。”......为什么作家也很难保护自己生活的隐私呢？<br />
这些观点在20世纪40年代是不可能表达出来的。张爱玲后半生的孤独，即她自1955年秋来美国后的40个年头里的孤独。这与她在20世纪40年代上半期，特别是1944年和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明对比，当时她和苏青共同出现在上海的文坛上，成为比最著名的电影演员和流行歌手还要耀眼的巨星。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
几十年来，她（嘉宝）依靠化妆和演技，过着隐居的生活，很少被别人看穿。她一生的信念是“我要自己生活”……为什么作家也很难保护自己的生活隐私？--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
这些情绪在20世纪40年代是难以表达的，张爱玲后半生的孤独，也就是1955年秋天来到美国的四十年，与二十世纪40年代上半叶，特别是1944年和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明的对比，当她和苏青同时出现在上海的文化舞台上，成为比最受赞誉的电影女演员和流行歌手更耀眼的明星。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
As argued earlier, the most important players in this society-wide promotion of women intellectuals were none other than women writers themselves. And among all literary genres, it was the modern essay that became the most powerful form of expression in women writers’ self-promotion and myth-making. Essay served to contribute concrete forms to a life that was void of any structure; in other words, women writers such as Eileen Chang and Su Qing used the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one’s imagination and fantasy could anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. In this section I will highlight two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang’s essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness.<br />
<br />
如前所述，在整个社会范围内提升女性知识分子最重要的参与者就是女性作家本身。在所有文学体裁中，现代散文成为女性作家自我提升和神话创造中最有力的表达形式。散文可以为没有任何结构的生活提供具体形式：换句话说，张爱玲和苏青等女性作家利用现代散文的形式，构建了一个个人想象和幻想可以驻留的可理解的宇宙。对日常经验的详细描述，即对物质世界的文化意义的陈述，不仅体现了动态的内心生活，而且体现了一种形成中的新的社会认同。在这一章中，我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中所概念化的生活的两个方面，一方面是作为城市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间，另一方面是将时尚的讲话视为物质意识的一个重要形式。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:13, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
如前所述,一个社会对女性知识分子的推动,最重要的力量莫过于女性作家本身。 而在所有文学体裁中,正是现代散文成为女作家自我提升和神话创作中最有力的表现形式。 "散文"为一种没有结构的生活贡献了具体的形式,换句话说,张爱玲、苏青等女性作家用现代散文的形式,构建了一个可以理解、想象和幻想的宇宙。 对日常生活经验的详细描述,即对物质世界文化意义的表述,不仅体现了动态的内心生活,而且表现了一种孕育中的新的社会认同。 在这一章中,我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中概念化的生活的两个方面：一方面是作为都市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间,另一方面是将时尚作为物质意识的重要形态的论述。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 06:20, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
'''Passage from apartment to street'''<br />
<br />
In her essay entitled “Gongyu shenghuo jiqu” (Interesting Moments in Apartment Life), Chang depicts a spatial construction which serves as the backdrop of the formation of a new urban persona:<br />
<br />
I would ride the wind, returning up there,<br />
but fear those marble domes and jade galleries<br />
the place so high, the cold is unbearable …… <br />
<br />
On reading these lines, residents who live on top floors of apartment buildings will more or less shiver with fear. The higher the apartment, the colder. Ever since the price of coal soared , radiators in apartments have become purely decorative. The “H” on the hot water faucet is indispensable in order to perfect the bathroom design; but if you turn on the hot water tap by mistake, a hollow but grievous rumble will burst out from the “Nine Springs” (''Jiu quan'') down below. It sounds like the very complicated and very capricious hot water pipe system in the apartment building has lost its temper. Even if we do not provoke it, the God of thunder still makes its power felt at any moment.<br />
<br />
在其题为“公寓生活中的有趣时刻”的文章中，张描绘了一种空间构造，它是新城市角色形成的背景：<br />
<br />
我会顺风而行，回到那里，<br />
但要担心那些大理石圆顶和玉廊<br />
这么高的地方，冷得难以忍受……<br />
<br />
阅读这些内容后，居住在公寓楼顶上的居民或多或少会因恐惧而颤抖。公寓越高，温度越低。自从煤炭价格飞涨以来，公寓中的制热器成了纯粹的装饰。为了完善浴室设计，热水龙头上的“ H”是必不可少的。但是，如果错误地打开热水龙头，则会从下方的“九座泉水”（“九泉”）处爆发出空荡却剧烈的隆隆声。听起来公寓大楼中非常复杂且反复无常的热水管道系统已经失去了活力。即使我们不激怒它，雷电之神仍然随时都能展现力量。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:39, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Out of nowhere, it can set off a long and evil buzz followed by two blasting sounds, as if an airplane was circling above for a while and then dropped two bombs. Having been terror-stricken in wartime Hong Kong, this kind of noise would always make me panic when I first returned to Shanghai. At first the pipe was still working conscientiously; in much difficulty, it would carry some hot water all the way up to the sixth floor, accompanied by a gurgling sound. That was still acceptable, but now it is like deafening thunder followed only by drizzle, and worse yet, all we get are just two droplets of yellow rusty mud. But I dare not complain anymore; the unemployed can easily fly into a rage.<br />
<br />
What is most striking in this beginning episode of Chang’s essay is how the experience of the everyday is depicted as parallel to that of war. War makes its metaphorical presence in daily life of an apartment dweller, serving as a trope for the erratic rhythm of an urban life style. Chang’s depiction of the texture of an apartment life then can be read as a parable of war.<br />
<br />
无缘无故，只听见不怀好意的"嗡……"拉长了半晌之后接着"訇訇"两声，活像飞机在顶上盘旋了一会，掷了两枚炸弹。在战时香港吓细了胆子的我，初回上海的时候，每每为之魂飞魄散。若是当初它认真工作的时候，艰辛地将热水运到六层楼上来，便是咕噜两声，也还情有可原。现在可是雷声大，雨点小，难得滴下两滴生锈的黄浆……然而也说不得了，失业的人向来是肝火旺的。<br />
<br />
这是张爱玲散文开头的一段，其中最令人吃惊的是作者将日常经历与战争并举。战争在公寓住户的日常生活中是一个隐喻性的存在，喻指城市生活节奏的飘忽不定。于是我们可以将张爱玲对公寓生活的描写解读成对战争的比喻。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 10:19, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
无缘无故，只听见不怀好意的"嗡……"拉长了半晌之后接着"訇訇"两声，活像飞机在顶上盘旋了一会，掷了两枚炸弹。在战时香港吓细了胆子的我，初回上海的时候，每每为之魂飞魄散。若是当初它认真工作的时候，艰辛地将热水运到六层楼上来，便是咕噜两声，也还情有可原。现在可是雷声大，雨点小，难得滴下两滴生锈的黄浆……但我不敢再抱怨了，失业者很容易发怒。<br />
<br />
这是张爱玲散文开头的一段，最引人注目的是如何将日常生活中的经历描绘成与战争的类似。战争在公寓住户的日常生活中是一个隐喻性的存在，喻指城市生活节奏的飘忽不定。于是我们可以将张爱玲对公寓生活的描写解读成对战争的比喻。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
This opening episode makes references to several archetypal war themes, including death (as in the reference to the “nine springs” or Jiu quan), the scarcity of necessities in life (such as the mentioning of high price of coal and deficiency of hot water in the apartment), and the threat of air-raid (as suggested by the narrator’s haunted memory from her years living in wartime Hong Kong). Themes of unemployment, social unrest, and economic instability are also represented in Chang’s depiction of an animated world where one’s private space is constantly intruded by outside forces. The author has invented a new sense of interiority in her attempt to come to terms with the topography of urban life during wartime. The essay gives textual testimonies to two most important categories of experience in occupied Shanghai – the urban and the war; and these two categories converge precisely within the constructed space of a modern apartment.<br />
<br />
<br />
这一开篇提到了几个典型的战争主题，包括死亡(比如提到了九泉或酒泉)，生活必需品的匮乏(比如提到了高昂的煤价和公寓里的热水短缺)，以及空袭的威胁(从叙述者对战时香港生活的挥之不去的回忆中可以看出)。失业、社会动荡、经济不稳定等主题也在张笔下描绘了一个充满活力的世界，一个人的私人空间不断受到外部势力的侵扰。作者创造了一种新的内在感，试图与战时城市生活的地形达成妥协。本文对被占领的上海的两种最重要的体验类型--城市体验和战争体验进行了考证，这两类体验恰好在现代公寓的建造空间中交汇在一起。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:40, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
这一开篇提到了几个典型的战争主题，包括死亡(比如提到了九泉或酒泉)，生活必需品的匮乏(比如提到了高昂的煤价和公寓里的热水短缺)，以及空袭的威胁(从叙述者对战时香港生活的挥之不去的回忆中可以看出)。失业、社会动荡、经济不稳定等主题也出现在张所描述的一个栩栩如生的世界里，在这个世界，私人空间不断受到外部势力的侵扰。作者在试图参照战时城市生活的地形的过程中，对（室）内部（设计）产生了新的想法。本文对被占领时上海的两种最重要的体验类型--城市体验和战争体验进行了考证，这两类体验恰好融合进了现代公寓的建造空间中。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the society-wide promotion of the two women and the women’s attempt in self-fashioning. Su and Chang were often showcased together with famous singers, dancers, and movie actresses at the time. See, for instance, ”Cui Chengxi wudao zuotan” (A Roundtable Discussion of Cui Chengxi’s Dance), where women writers were presented together with the Korean Dancer Cui Chengxi and a Chinese dancer named Wang Yuan. Published in ''The Miscellany Monthly'' 12. 2 (November, 1943). Another example is ”Nalianghui ji” (A Summer Gathering), where Eileen Chang was showcased together with the singer/movie actress Li Xianglan. In The ''Miscellany Monthly'' 15. 5 (August, 1945).<br />
<br />
Originally published in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly'' 3 (December, 1943).<br />
<br />
These are the lines in the Song dynasty poet Su Shi’s famous song lyric written to the tune ”Shuidiao getou” (Song for the Water Tune).<br />
<br />
第二章讨论了这两个女人在全社会的推广以及她们在自我塑造方面的尝试。当时，苏和张经常与著名歌手、舞者和电影女演员一起表演。例如，在“崔承熙舞蹈座谈”(关于崔承熙舞蹈的圆桌讨论)中，女性作家与韩国舞蹈家崔承熙和中国舞蹈家王原一起出现。刊登在《每月杂文》12.2(1943年11月)。另一个例子是“纳凉会”(夏季聚会)，张爱玲和歌手兼电影演员李香兰一起展示在《每月杂文》15.5(1945年8月)。<br />
原刊于《天地月刊》第3期(1943年12月)。<br />
这些诗句是宋代诗人苏轼在著名的词作中写的“水调歌头”(Song for the Water tune)。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:24, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第二章讨论了这两个女人在全社会的推广以及她们在自我塑造方面的尝试。当时，苏和张经常与著名歌手、舞者和电影女演员一起表演。例如，在“崔承熙舞蹈座谈”(关于崔承熙舞蹈的圆桌讨论)中，女性作家与韩国舞蹈家崔承熙和中国舞蹈家王原一起出现。发表在《每月杂文》12.2(1943年11月)。另一个例子是“纳凉会”(夏季聚会)，张爱玲和歌手兼电影演员李香兰一起出现在《每月杂文》15.5(1945年8月)。<br />
原刊是在《天地月刊》第3期(1943年12月)。<br />
这些诗句是宋代诗人苏轼在著名的抒情词作中写的“水调歌头”(Song for the Water tune)。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:04, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
This is the first time in the history of modern Chinese literature that the literary world of a woman author is so tenaciously associated with an urban life style characterized by routines in and out of a modern apartment. In other words, the spatial specificities of a modern apartment are essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime in Eileen Chang’s writing. City offers many transitional territories such as hotels, stations, theaters, and cafes, which are spaces beyond the rigid categorization of inside or outside, private or public. In Chang’s writing, the space of an apartment is presented as such a transitional site. It is a self-contained private space, which enables a city dweller to escape the intensity of life outside the apartment when necessary. But more importantly, an apartment is also a locus point from which one can enter into various aspects of urban culture.<br />
<br />
这是现代中国文学史上的第一次，女性作家的文学世界与城市生活如此顽强地联系在一起，这种生活以现代公寓的出现和消失为特征。 换句话说，张爱玲（Eileen Chang）的作品中，现代公寓的空间特色对于构建战时生活观至关重要。 城市提供了许多过渡区域，例如旅馆，车站，剧院和咖啡馆，这些区域超出了对内部或外部，私人或公共场所的严格分类。 在张的著作中，公寓的空间就是这样一个过渡场所。 它是一个独立的私人空间，使城市居民在必要时可以逃离公寓外的生活。 但更重要的是，公寓也是人们进入城市文化各个方面的起点。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:09, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个女作家的文学世界和与一种城市生活方式牢固的联结在一起，这种生活方式一现代公寓的日常生活为特征，这在现代中国文学史上是第一次。换句话说，在张爱玲的作品中，现代公寓的空间特异性对于战时生活愿景的构建至关重要。城市提供了许多过渡性区域比如旅馆，车站，剧院和咖啡厅，这些区域不适用于对内部或外部，私人或公共场所的严格分类。在张的著作中，公寓的空间就是这样的过渡性场所。它是一个独立的私人空间，在必要的时候，可以是一个城市居民逃离公寓外那个世界的紧张生活。但更为重要的是，公寓也是人们能够融入城市文化的各个方面的起点。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 13:46, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
For Eileen Chang, who, between 1942 and 1945, spent most of her time in a flat on the top floor of a six-story apartment building not too far away from the Jing’an Temple, the modern interior space is like a picture frame, encircling the nights and days of an urban dweller who constantly looks out, from her own apartment windows, that is, a new vantage point, at the kaleidoscopic world of metropolitan Shanghai. Living in an apartment seems to have changed ways of seeing, hearing, smelling, and feeling: not only the cityscape is presented differently – now from a new height (the windows of an apartment on the sixth floor), even sounds in the city become more vivid with the elevation of height:<br />
<br />
I am often amazed at how street noises can be heard so clearly from the sixth floor, as if it was all happening right beneath one’s ears. The older we get, the farther we are separated from our childhood, and yet the memories of it and its many trivial details have gradually become more sweet and vivid.<br />
<br />
对于张爱玲（1942年至1945年之间）大部分时间都花在离静安寺不太远的六层公寓楼顶楼的公寓里，现代室内空间就像一幅画框围绕着一个城市居民的夜晚和白天，她不断从自己的公寓窗户向外看，这是一个新的视角，俯瞰着大都市上海的万花筒.居住在公寓中似乎已经改变了看，听，闻和感觉的方式：不仅城市景观的呈现方式有所不同-现在从一个新的高度（六层公寓的窗户）开始，甚至城市中的声音也变得不同.随着高度的升高更加生动：<br />
我常常惊讶于如何从六楼清晰地听到街道的声音，好像所有声音都发生在人的耳朵下一样.我们年龄越大，我们与童年的距离就越远，但是对它的记忆及其许多琐碎的细节却逐渐变得更加甜美生动.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:35, 6 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:35, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Just like our present bears imprints of the past, an interior space is constantly permeated and reshaped by the every-changing outside world. This is a world (un)marked by blurred boundaries; liminality characterizes one’s own positioning within such an obscure realm. And yet senses simply become more acute, and thoughts are given fresh new patterns. Here, we are witnessing the formation a new metaphysics of the everyday:<br />
<br />
I like to listen to street sounds. Those who have more refined taste would rest on their pillows and listen to wind whistling in a pine grove or the roar of ocean waves. But it is the sound of a trolley that I must hear in order to fall asleep. On the hills in Hong Kong, only in winter when the north wind blew on the evergreens all night would it remind me of the charming sound of a trolley. People who have lived in an exciting city for many years do not realize what they must have in life until they have left the place. The thoughts of a city dweller are set against a curtain of striped pattern; the light-colored stripes are running trolleys. Like neatly paralleled currents of sounds, they continuously flow into our subconscious. <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
For Eileen Chang, an apartment is truly the center of urban life. Like a train station, it serves as an initial starting point, always ready to transport one’s senses into many different directions. Chang’s aesthetics of life is then attributed with a concrete spatial form that is deeply rooted in the soil of the everyday of wartime. If the production of popular journals in occupied Shanghai symbolizes the shaping of an imagined space, the modern apartment is another important site on the mental map of a city under siege. The aggression of wartime occupation has disrupted cycles of life, routines in and out of one’s own home, but new urban spaces and experiences were also created. Here the presence of war intensifies one’s experience of the urban, crystallized in the shaping of a particular spatial form, that is, the modern apartment.<br />
<br />
对于张爱玲来说，公寓才是真正的城市生活中心。就像火车站一样，它作为一个起点，随时准备着把人的感官带到不同的方向。张爱玲的生活美学赋予了一种具体的空间形式，这种空间形式深深扎根于战时日常生活中。如果说沦陷的上海流行期刊的出版象征着一个想象空间的塑造，那么现代公寓则是围困城市心理地图的另一个重要场所。战时的侵略打乱了人们的生活圈，以及一切日常生活，但也创造了新的城市空间和体验。在这里，战争的存在强化了人们对城市的体验，形成了一种特殊的空间形态，即现代公寓。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对张爱玲而言，公寓确实是城市生活的中心。它就像火车站，作为起点时刻准备将人的感官送往不同的方向。张爱玲的生活美学于是被赋予了具体的空间形式，它深植与战时日常的土壤之中。如果说流行刊物在上海占领区的出版象征着一个想象空间的形成，那么现代公寓则是处于封锁之下的城市的心理地图上的另一个重要的场所。战时占领的侵略性扰乱了生活圈打乱了人们归家和离家的惯例，但新的城市空间和经历也随之创造出来。战争于此加强了人们对城市的体验。这样的体验正是在公寓这一特殊空间的形成中确定的。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:02, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对张爱玲来说，公寓是真正的城市生活中心。 就像火车站一样，它是一个最初的起点，随时可以将人的感官带入许多不同的方向。 张爱玲的生活美学就被归结为一种具体的空间形式，深深扎根于战时日常的土壤中。 如果说在被占领的上海，通俗期刊的生产象征着一种想象空间的塑造，那么现代公寓则是一个被围困的城市精神地图上的另一个重要场所。 战时占领的侵略性打乱了人们的生活周期，打乱了人们出入自己家的例行公事，但新的城市空间和经验也被创造出来。 在这里，战争的存在强化了人们对城市的体验，具体体现在一种特殊空间形式的塑造上，即现代公寓。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:20, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
Many feminist scholars have suggested the importance of studying spatial constructions. They argue that by giving the inner world a form of concreteness, spatial symbols in literature are most illuminating in showing how personal experience intersects with specific cultural categories. The study of spatial construction is then important since it is the key point in understanding women’s literature: space often serves as a vehicle by which the female protagonists attempt to launch a journey of self-discovery, which constitutes the most important part of the female experience. See, for instance, Jessica Benjamin, ”A Desire of One’s Own: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Intersubjective Space,” in ''Feminist Studies/Critical Studies'', edited by Teresa de Lauretis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).<br />
<br />
For a discussion of other kinds of spatial constructions in 1940s Shanghai, see Wei Shaochang, ”Jiu Shanghai de tingzijian” (The Garret in Old Shanghai), published in ''Haishang wentan'' (March, 1994). Also see a photographic history in Tang Zhenchang, ed., ''Jindai Shanghai fanhua lu'' (Modern Shanghai: The Splendor) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan 1993.)<br />
<br />
In ”Interesting Moments in Apartment Life.”<br />
<br />
Ibid.<br />
<br />
See Nicole Huang, ''Written In the Ruins''.<br />
<br />
<br />
许多女性学者提到了研究空间构造的重要性。她们认为通过给予内心世界一种具体形式，文学上的空间符号最能说明个人经验如何和特定的文化范畴相交。关于空间结构的研究因此十分重要因为这是理解女性文学的关键点：空间常作为一种工具，通过这种工具，女性反抗主义者试图发起一场自我发现之旅，这构成了女性体验中最重要的一部分。例如，见杰西卡·本杰明，《个人的欲望：心理分析女性主义和主题空间》来自于女性研究/批判研究，由特丽莎·德·拉瑞缇斯编辑（布卢明顿：印第安纳大学出版社，1986）<br />
关于20世纪40年代其他关于空间构造的讨论，见魏绍昌《旧上海的亭子间》发表于海上文坛（1994年3月）。另见唐振昌主编的《近代上海繁华录》（香港：商务印书馆1993）摄影史。<br />
在《公寓生活的有趣瞬间》<br />
同上<br />
见黄妮可《写在废墟里》--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 00:50, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s vision, this spatial experience is also gendered. The image of an apartment dweller is gendered, and often female. “It seems like only women can fully understand the advantages of life in an apartment,” Chang writes, since the household duties in an apartment are much more simplified. Therefore, a woman can much better appreciate the numerous trivial details in life; she can even start to appreciate the gorgeous colors of fresh vegetables displayed at morning markets, and enjoy the pleasures of cooking and cleaning. Chang’s reinvention of these daily trips is most forcefully presented in one essay entitled “Zhongguo de riye” (China: Days and Nights). <br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (extended edition) (Shanghai: Shanhe tushu gongsi, 1946).（注释）<br />
<br />
在张爱玲看来，这种空间体验是有性别偏向的。公寓住户的形象也是有性别偏向的，而且通常指女性。张爱玲写道：“恐怕只有女人能够充分了解公寓生活的特殊优点”，因为公寓里的家务要简单许多。因此，女性可以更好地欣赏生活的鸡毛蒜皮；她甚至还可以欣赏早市新鲜蔬菜亮丽的颜色，享受做饭打扫房间的乐趣。张爱玲把这些日常小事再创造，有力地写在名为《中国的日夜》的散文中（中国：日日夜夜）。<br />
<br />
引自《传奇》（增订本）（上海：山河图书公司，1946）（注释）--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 07:20, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
张爱玲认为，这种空间体验也具有性别偏向。公寓居民的形象具有女性的性别偏向。张爱玲写道：“似乎只有女性才能充分理解公寓生活的多姿多彩，” 原因在于公寓的家务更加简化了，这使得女性可以更好地欣赏生活中许多琐碎的细节。比如她甚至可以开始欣赏早市上颜色鲜艳的新鲜蔬菜，并享受烹饪和打扫卫生的乐趣。在一篇名为《中国之日夜》的文章中，张爱玲重点重塑了对这些日常琐碎小事。<br />
<br />
引自《传奇》（增订本）（上海：山河图书公司，1946年）（注释）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s own account, morning errands to the vegetable market seem to be her own tour through the part of the city that she is most attached to. Every morning she would take the elevator down from her sixth floor apartment, emerge onto the awakening streets, mingle with the morning crowd, and progress toward the world of the magnificent colors of the early market. Daily routines are not just bound duties that confine the everyday experiences of women; instead, they become forms of life choreographed in accordance with the distinctive rhythm of the city. Women can finally look at them as opportunities to explore a life that is wider, brighter, and more open to a variety of new possibilities.<br />
在张女士自己的描述中，早上去菜市场的差事是她游览这所城市中最爱的部分。每天早晨，她都会从六楼的公寓乘电梯下楼，来到苏醒的街道上，融入早间的人群中，走向绚丽的早市世界里。日常事务不仅限于女性的日常经历，相反，它们变成了根据城市独特节奏精心编排的生活形式。女性最终可以把它们看作是探索更广阔、更光明，更开放的生活的机会。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 17:27, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Life in apartment is then presented with many layers in Chang’s essay writing. In “Daolu yi mu” (Views from the Streets), Eileen Chang also reminds the reader of the many levels of urban culture taking shape outside of the apartment, that is, on the streets. On one level, the street scene of Shanghai is most distinctively characterized by the window displays and neon lights on Avenue Joffre:<br />
<br />
Designing shop windows is a fascinating job, since there is motionless drama in each display. ……… [I remember] a mid-winter night four or five years ago when my cousin and I were strolling down the Avenue Joffre, looking at shop window displays. <br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Under neon lights, the slanted faces of those wooden beauties under slanted hats, with feathers slanting down from atop the hats. I did not wear western suits, had no need of a hat, and did not want to buy one. And yet I still looked at them with admiring eyes…… <br />
<br />
This fascination with window displays and neon lights is staged at a moment that belongs to the past – “four of five years ago.” At the present time within the essay, a different layer of images are highlighted. We see various street corners scattered in less prestigious neighborhoods of the metropolis. Chang’s impressionistic depiction of the city of Shanghai contains numerous crisscrosses of small lanes and faces of ordinary people:<br />
<br />
”Views from the Streets,” in Heaven and Earth Monthly 4 (January, 1944). （注释）<br />
霓虹灯下，木美人倾斜的脸，倾斜的帽子，帽子上斜吊着的羽毛。我既不穿洋装，不会买帽子，也不想买，然而还是用欣羡的眼光看着......<br />
这种对橱窗和霓虹灯的迷恋属于过去—“四五年前”。在这篇文章中描绘了各种各样的景象。我们看到各种各样的街角散布在大都市不怎么有名的地方。张爱玲对上海这座城市的印象描绘包含了无数纵横交错的小巷子和普通人的面孔: “街景”，《天地》月刊第4期，(1944年1月)。（注释）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:23, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
There are many scenes on the streets that are worth another glance. At dusk, a rickshaw is parked by the roadside, a woman is leaning against the seat, a sack in her hand, some persimmons in the sack. The rickshaw man is squatting down on the ground, trying to light up an oil lamp. It is getting dark, and the lamp by the woman’s feet slowly brightens. <br />
<br />
Here, within the space of one essay, the images of a rickshaw man and a housewife on a small street are juxtaposed with the memory of two young women window-shopping on the extravagant Avenue Joffre. The subtle light of an oil lamp is placed against the bright and luring rats of neon signs.<br />
<br />
街道上有许多场景值得一看。 黄昏时，一辆人力车停在路边，一个女人靠在座位上，手里拿着一个麻袋，麻袋里放着一些柿子。 这辆人力车男子蹲在地上，试图点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女人脚旁的灯慢慢变亮。<br />
在这篇论文的空间中，在一条小街上，一辆黄包车男子和一名家庭主妇的影像并置在一起，以纪念两名年轻女子在奢侈的Joffre大街上逛街。油灯的微弱光线被放置在明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌上。<br />
大街上有许多景象值得一看。 黄昏时分，一辆黄包车停在路边，一位女士靠在座位上，手上的购物袋里装了一些柿子。 车夫蹲在地上，正点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女士脚旁的灯光慢慢亮了起来。<br />
在文章的这一场景中，小街上的车夫和家庭主妇与在霞飞大道逛街的两个年轻女郎形成了鲜明的对比。油灯微弱的灯光也和绚丽夺目的霓虹灯形成了对照。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 03:12, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
街上有许多的风景值得一看。黄昏时，一辆黄包车停在路边，一个女人正靠着椅子，手里拿着一个大袋子，袋子中装着些柿子。车夫蹲在地上试图点亮油灯。天要黑了，女人脚旁的油灯发出微弱的光芒<br />
这篇文章的空白处，车夫和家庭主妇在小街上的图画和对两个在奢华的艾佛尔大街无意购物的女人的记忆放置在一起。油灯散发出来的微弱的光芒与明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌形成对比。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:26, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
街上值得一看的正多着。黄昏的时候，路旁歇着人力车，一个女人斜欠坐在车上，手里换着网袋，袋里有柿子。车夫蹲在地下，点那盏油灯。天黑了，女人脚旁的灯渐渐亮了起来。<br />
在文章的这一场景中，小街上的人力车车夫和家庭女人与在奢华的霞飞路（淮海中路）上逛街的年轻女郎这两个情景重合。油灯微弱的光芒与明亮夺人的霓虹灯形成鲜明对比。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:03, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
And the warmth and intimacy of the present set off the coldness and vastness of a moment in the past. Here, even though there is no direct reference to the turbulent events taking place in the background of occupied Shanghai, we can nonetheless sense the presence of war in this contrast between the two time frames and the switch back and forth between different layers of urban space. Rapid movements, swift changes, drastic transformations, and the transience of a given moment, these themes of war are represented in a most subtle and yet vivid fashion.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
To carry the argument further, Chang’s sense of modernity has extended from a modernist high culture to a culture of wartime quotidian life. The author is more interested in representing the tension between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ surfacing in everyday routines of ordinary men and women in her city. The intrusion of war seems to have pushed the brilliance of Avenue Joffre back into one’s dusty memory. Here we can perceive how the experience of war and occupation has systematically changed the spatialization of modernity: modernity as a body of new urban sensibilities is now located somewhere between the grand avenue and the back alley.<br />
<br />
进一步说，张爱玲的现代性已经从现代主义的高等文化扩展到战时的日常生活文化。她更感兴趣的是表现在她的城市里普通男女日常生活中浮现的“旧”与“新”之间的张力。战争的入侵似乎把乔弗尔大道的辉煌推回到尘封的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和占领的经历是如何系统地改变现代性的空间化的:现代性作为一种新的城市情感体，现在位于大道和后街之间的某个地方。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的现代意识从现代主义的高级文化延伸到战时的平民生活文化。作者更感兴趣的是表现出她所在城市普通男女日常生活中出现的“旧”与“新”之间的紧张关系。战争的侵扰似乎把乔夫尔大街的辉煌重新推回到尘封已久的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和曾被占领的经历是如何系统地改变了现代性的空间化：现代性作为一个新的城市情感体，现在位于大街和后巷之间的某个地方。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
– '''Fashion talk''' – <br />
To illustrate how material imagination is essential to Chang’s aesthetics of the everyday, I will now turn to her conceptualization of fashion as an invented form of life. Chang’s discussions of fashion demonstrate her fascination with an inner vision. By depicting a world of light, brilliant colors, unique lines and shapes, Chang has also suggested that literary writing can be the beginning of a cultural history of things.<br />
<br />
In Chang’s fictional writing, colors, lines, surfaces, and words are often combined to form a network of intricate meanings. Her writing is known for its meticulous attention to details, particularly clothes.<br />
<br />
--时尚谈--<br />
<br />
为了说明物质想象力对张爱玲的日常美学的重要性，我现在要谈谈她将时尚概念化为一种自创的生活形式。张爱玲对时尚的看法显示了她对内在视觉的迷恋。通过描写一个光亮、绚丽、线条和形状独特的世界，她也提出文学写作可以成为事物文化史的开始。<br />
<br />
在张爱玲的小说创作中，色彩、线条、表面、文字往往组合成一个错综复杂的意义网络。她的写作以细致入微著称，尤其是主角的衣着打扮。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:10, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For instance, in her novella “Jinsuo ji” (Chronicle of Gilded Fetters), through the clothes of female servants, a portrait of this old-style family is introduced. Clothes with bright colors are set in contrast to neutral tones of modern fashion; the former becomes a symbol of the ‘past,’ which gradually recedes into the background, gorgeous, amorous, dazzling, but helplessly decaying. Temporality of fashion serves to punctuate narrative rhythm in Chang’s fictional writing.<br />
<br />
It is in Chang’s essay writing that a discourse of fashion is passionately elaborated. Chang’s most important essay on fashion is entitled “Gengyi ji” (A Chronicle of Changing Clothes), in which one hundred years of Chinese history is acted out in Chang’s dramatic display of clothes in movements.<br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (Romances) (Shanghai: Za¬zhishe, 1944).（注释）<br />
<br />
In Past and Present Bi-weekly 34 (December, 1943). Originally written in English and published in the English language journal XXth Century.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In this world, the transformation of modern clothes can be read as a history of mentality that centers on a constant redefinition of notions such as femaleness, female beauty, and female proper conducts:<br />
<br />
Men have more freedom in their life than women do. Yet I do not want to become a man, only because they do not have freedom [in having a variety of clothing]. <br />
<br />
Chang goes on to tease out the absurdity of gendered assumptions in cultural discourses:<br />
<br />
Clothes seem trivial and not worth mentioning. Liu Bei once said: “Brothers are [important to each other] like hands to feet whereas their wives and children are [insignificant] like clothes.” But for women, it is much easier to cherish their clothes than their husbands. <br />
<br />
From ”A Chronicle of Changing Clothes.”<br />
<br />
Back in the 1920s, Zhang Jingsheng already highlighted the significance of the changes of clothes/fashion, which, according to him, reflects and shapes the present state of mentalities. See Zhang’s 1925 book entitled Mei de renshengguan (An Outlook on a Life of Beauty) as quoted in Peng Hsiao-yen, ”Sexual Enlightenment: ‘Dr. Sex’ Zhang Jingsheng and May Fourth First-Person （注释）<br />
<br />
在这个世界上，现代服装的变革可以理解为一部关于精气神的历史，这部历史以女性气质、女性美、女性举止仪态等观念的不断重新定义为核心。<br />
<br />
男人在生活中比女人更加自由。然而我不想成为男人，只因为男人们没有[挑选各种服装]的自由。 <br />
<br />
张先生接着戏说文化话语中的性别假设的荒谬性。<br />
<br />
衣服似乎微不足道，不值得一提。 刘备曾说 "兄弟如手足，女人如衣服" 但对于女人来说，比起自己的丈夫，她们更易于珍爱自己的衣服。<br />
摘自《更衣记》。<br />
<br />
早在20世纪20年代，张竞生就已经强调了衣服/时装变化的意义，他认为，衣服/时装的变化反映以及塑造了当代社会的精神气。 参见张氏1925年出版的《美德重生观》一书，转引自彭孝严《性启蒙："性博士 "张竞生与五四第一人称》。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:15, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
There was a Western writer (is it Bernard Shaw?) who once complained that when most women chose their husbands, they were not nearly as attentive and cautious as when they were selecting a hat for themselves. The most heartless woman would lament passionately when she began to talk about “that silk gown I had last year.”<br />
<br />
Never mind whether it was Bernard Shaw or some other Western writer who made these bizarre comments about women’s apparent “lack” of judgment in choosing their own destinies and their partiality for clothes and other seemingly trivial accessories in life, for Eileen Chang, these male voices were all spelling out the similarly absurd and “ancient” logic by Liu Bei of the Three Kingdoms era (third century A.D.).<br />
<br />
Narrative Fiction.” For Zhang Jingsheng, clothes are the extension of a female body and therefore are crucial elements in exploring female sexuality and inner psyche. This may serve as a mediation to explain the fascination with the female clothed bodies expressed in Eileen Chang’s writing of the 1940s.（注释）<br />
<br />
For a discussion of the correlation between clothes, gender discourses, and performance culture during the first two decades of the century, see an essay by Zhou Huiling (Katharine Hui-ling Chou) entitled ”Nü yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, ‘xin nüxing’ lunshu: Wanqing dao Wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan” (Actresses, Realism, and Discourse of ”New Woman”: Gendered Performances in Modern Chinese Theater from Late Qing to the May Fourth), published in ''Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu'' (Studies of Women’s History of Modern China) 4 (August, 1996). Also see her dissertation entitled ''Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1919-1949'' (New York University, 1997).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
But the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” does much more than merely tease out the gendered categories embedded in fashion discourses. “We cannot really imagine the world of the past generations, so idle, so quiet, and so organized,” writes Eileen Chang, “during the three hundred years of Manchurian ruling of Qing dynasty, there was not even (jing) such a thing called women’s fashion!” The use of the adverb “jing” implies an astonishment: women did not even have fashion for three hundred years, and how could anyone have endured such a misfortune! The emphasis placed on women’s clothes seem to be a landmark that separates the modern era from the antiquated worlds.<br />
<br />
这篇文章《换衣纪事》不仅仅只是梳理出隐藏在时尚话语中的性别范畴。张爱玲写道：“我们无法想象过去几代人的世界，如此闲散，如此安静，如此井井有条，在清朝满洲统治的三百年里，竟连这样一个叫女装的东西都没有！副词“竟”，暗含着一种震惊：三百年来女人连时尚未曾有，怎么会有人能忍受这样的不幸！对女装的强调似乎是现代与过时世界的一个里程碑。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这篇文章《变化的服装编年史》(A Chronicle of Changing Clothes)所做的，远不止是梳理出嵌入时尚话语中的性别类别。张爱玲写道:“我们真的无法想象过去几代人的世界是如此闲适，如此安静，如此有条理。在清朝满洲统治的三百年里，甚至没有(竟)这样一种叫做女性时尚的东西!副词“惊”的使用暗示着一种惊讶:女性甚至三百年来都没有时尚，谁能忍受这样的不幸!对女性服装的重视似乎是区分现代和古老世界的一个里程碑。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:54, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From the point of view of Eileen Chang, the lack of changes in three hundred years of China’s fashion history forms a sharp contrast to the thirty or forty years of the most recent history which, for Chang, can be read as a fascinating narrative put together by rapidly shifting patterns of women’s fashion.<br />
<br />
Chang’s account then turns history into a stage presentation. Her impressionistic view of modern history highlights colors, lines, shapes, and moods, which are all crystallized in the changing faces of women’s clothes. Chang’s representation of modern history through the transformation of women’s clothes has the effect of a modern museum of human fantasies, or a gallery of artifacts constantly in motion. <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
History is turned into a fictional narrative. More interestingly, there is no real human being moving in this narrative; shapes, colors, lines, and circles occupy the space. Through a personification of clothes, Chang has created an animation effect in her world of changing fashion. Clothes replace human voices; clothes become language itself.<br />
<br />
In “Views from the Streets,” Eileen Chang also describes fashion display as “motionless drama,” a notion that highlights the correlation between literature, performance art, and material culture. By using the notion of drama as a trope, Eileen Chang has indicated that fashion, like forms of fictional narrative, is a dramatization of life, a life presented on stage. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
A fashion image is a frozen historical moment, that is, a close-up of a historical moment intersecting with moments in one’s personal history. The clothed body of a modern urban woman thereby carries the burden of history, as well as the marks of our present time.<br />
<br />
In his essay on fashion and modernity written back in 1904, Georg Simmel has already theorized the cultural and social significance of fashion in modern life. He views fashion as a signifier of modernity and a theatricalization of social transformations. For Simmel, fashion consciousness is vital to our conceptualization of the modern and the urban. <br />
<br />
Georg Simmel, ”Fashion” (1904), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, edited and with an introduction by Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 294-323.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Simmel’s essay on fashion should be read side by side with his another crucial essay written a year earlier in 1903 entitled “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the heightened level of sensory stimulation associated with the construction of modern metropolis. Fashion responds most directly and instantaneously to these changes. Following is a frequently quoted passage from “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the essence of modern life from a physiological as well as psychological perspective:<br />
<br />
The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.<br />
<br />
西美尔那篇关于时尚的文章应该和他在1903年写的另一篇重要的文章并列阅读，那篇文章题为《大都市与精神生活》，描述了随着现代大都市的建设而提高的感官刺激水平。时尚界对这些变化的反应是最直接和即时的。下面是《都市与心理生活》中经常引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质:<br />
都市个性赖以建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速、持续的转移而强化的情感生活。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
西美尔笔下关于时尚的文章应该与他在1903年写的另一篇重要文章《大都市与精神生活》相呼应，这篇文章描述了与现代大都市建设带来的强烈感官刺激。时尚第一时间捕捉到了这些变化并即时跟上它的步伐。以下是《大都市与精神生活》中经常被引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质。<br />
大都会的个性所建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速和持续变化而导致的情感生活的强化。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:30, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Man is a creature whose existence is dependent on differences, i.e., his mind is stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded. Lasting impressions, the slightness in their differences, the habituated regularity of their course and contrasts between them, consume, so to speak, less mental energy than the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli.<br />
人是一种离不开差异而存在的生物，人的思维会被现有的和那些以往存在的印象的不同所刺激。持续的印象之间，即使是细微的差异，他们之间的习惯性规律和对立消耗的精神能量少于捕捉那些仅仅一眼就能看出明显差别的快速变化的图像和突如其来的强大刺激。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:56, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
To the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions – with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life – it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life, and in the degree of awareness necessitated by our organization as creatures dependent on differences, a deep contrast with the slower, more habitual, more smoothly flowing rhythm of the sensory-mental phase of small town and rural existence. <br />
<br />
Simmel’s remarks can help illustrate how the discourse of fashion is situated at the center of Eileen Chang’s aesthetic vision. But Chang has gone well beyond Simmel. She incorporates urbanism, modernity, and femininity in her creation of fashion as a new cultural paradigm. <br />
<br />
See Simmel, ”The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, 325.（注释）<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，大都市创造了这些心理条件——每过一次街道，伴随着经济、职业和社会生活的节奏和多样性——它创造了精神生活的感官基础，以及我们组织作为依赖差异的生物所必需的意识程度与节奏较慢、习惯性较强、流畅流畅的节奏感形成鲜明对比的是小城镇和乡村的存在状态。<br />
<br />
西梅尔的这番话有助于说明张爱玲的美学视野是如何将时尚话语置于中心的。但张爱玲已经超越了西梅尔。她将都市主义、现代性和女性气质融入到她的时尚创作中，作为一种新的文化范式。<br />
<br />
参见西梅尔，“大都市与精神生活”（1903年），《论个性与社会形式：精选著作》，325。（注释）--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
The fact that the power of designing such a new paradigm is in the hands of a woman makes it even more unique for her time. More importantly, Chang’s fashion stories can also be read as parables of war. Designing fashion and then writing about fashion are her ways to come to terms with the world at war and the city under siege. In a world where nothing is fixed, and scenes of the present are swiftly disappearing at the very next moment, the ever-changing women’s fashion ironically becomes something that is most stable and lucid, something that can be held on to.<br />
<br />
经一位女性之手设计这样一个新的范式，它的力量让她的时代更加独特。更重要的是，张爱玲的时髦故事读来也可算是战争寓言。设计时尚再书写时尚，是她对这个处于战争中的世界和陷入包围的城市的妥协方式。在一个千变万化，眼前的景象稍纵即逝的世界里，具有讽刺意味的是，不停改变的女性时尚是最稳定、最清楚的，是可以把握的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:06, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以女性之手设计新式范例会使其在她的时代更具独特性。更重要的是，张爱玲的时尚故事可以解读为战争格言。设计时尚、描述时尚是她对于交战状态中的世界和围困中的城市的妥协。处于一个动荡的世界中，当前的场景会在下一秒迅速地消失，很讽刺的是，不断变化的女性时尚成为了最稳定和最透明，以及可以坚持的东西。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s account of wartime Hong Kong in an essay entitled “Jinyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes), she describes individual attentions to details of clothes at a critical moment when one’s own life can be smashed to pieces in no time:<br />
In Hong Kong, when we first heard the news that the war had broken out, a girl classmate in my dormitory started panicking. “What am I going to do? I have nothing appropriate to wear!” she cried. Her family were wealthy overseas Chinese. She had a different wardrobe for every social occasion. From a dance party on a yacht to a formal dinner, she was always sufficiently equipped. But she never imagined that there would be a war.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在其《烬余录》中对战时香港的记述中，她对个人服装的细节上这样描写使人对生活幻灭的重要时刻：在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发的新闻之时，我宿舍的一位女同学开始恐慌起来。“我该做什么？我没有合适的穿的衣服！”她哭着说。她的家人都远在海外。在各个社交场合她都有不同的服装搭配。从游艇上的舞会到正式的晚宴，她总是准备有充足的衣着。但她却从未想过这里会爆发战争。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:21, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《烬余录》中讲述战时的香港时描绘到，一个人在性命攸关的时刻竟会对自己的服饰百般注意：<br />
在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发这个消息时，我宿舍的一个女同学开始慌张。她喊道，“我该怎么办？我都没有合适的衣服穿！”她们一家是富裕的华侨。她在不同的社交场合都有自己的服饰搭配，从游艇上的舞会到一场正式的晚宴，她的服装满满当当的。但她从没想过战争会爆发。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
She finally managed to get hold of a big black quilted jacket which probably would not attract any attention from the air force circling above. When it was time to flee we all went our separate ways. I saw her again when the war was over. She cut her hair short in the masculine Filipino style – the trend in Hong Kong at the time because a woman with that hair style could pass for a man. <br />
<br />
她终于弄到了一件黑色夹克，这件夹克可能不会引起在上空盘旋的空军的注意。逃命时我们分道扬镳了。战争结束后我又见到她了。她把头发剪成了男式的发型——当时这种发型在香港比较时髦，因为拥有此发型的女人可以替代男人。<br />
<br />
Indeed our different responses to the war are reflected in our choice of clothes. Take Suleika for example. A beauty from a remote town on the Malay peninsula, she was petite and dark, with dreamy eyes and slightly protruding teeth.<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对战争的不同反应体现在我们对衣服的选择上。例如苏莱卡，一位来自马来半岛偏僻小镇的美女。她娇小黝黑，有着梦幻般的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:51, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对于战争的不同反应体现在我们对服装的选择上。比如苏莱卡，一位来自马来西亚偏僻小镇的妙龄女子，她身材娇小，皮肤黝黑，有着闪闪发光的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 00:35, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Like most girls who had a convent education, she was naive to an embarrassing degree. She chose to major in medicine, which means that she had to learn to dissect human bodies. But did the corpses have clothes on or not? The question bothered her, so she was asking people about it. This had become quite a joke around our school. <br />
<br />
A bomb landed next to our dorm, so the warden had to convince us to flee down the hill. Even in such emergency, Suleika did not forget to pack up her most lavish clothes. Against the well meaning advice of many wise people, she somehow managed to transport, in the midst of the gunfire, a big heavy leather trunk of clothes down the hill.<br />
<br />
她和大多数接受过修道院教育的女孩儿一样，天真无邪，却令人尴尬。她选择学医，这就意味着她必须学习解刨人体。但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这个问题困扰着她，于是她就一直问别人。这在我们学校成了一个大笑话。<br />
<br />
一颗炸弹落到了我们宿舍旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝我们逃下山去。苏来卡即使在这种紧急情况下也没有忘记收拾带走她那些最奢侈的衣服。她不顾许多聪明人的善意劝告，仍设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:23, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
像大多数在修道院学习的女孩一样，她天真无邪，却又令人觉得有一丝尴尬。 她选择了医学专业，这意味着她必须学习解剖人体。 但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这是个困扰着她的难题，所以她一直向他人请教，以至于这已经成为我们学校的一个笑话。<br />
<br />
一枚炸弹降落在我们宿舍的旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝服我们逃下山去。即使在这样的紧急情况下，苏莱卡也没有忘记打包带走自己最奢华的衣服，完全不顾智者们的善意建议，仍然想法设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:56, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Suleika then joined the defense force, working as a substitute nurse for the Red Cross. She was often seen squatting on the ground, hacking firewood to light up a fire, wearing her copper red and dark green silk gown embroidered with the character “shou” (longevity). What a waste, but for her it was all worth it. This smart outfit endowed her with an unprecedented confidence; without that she would not have blended so well with her male colleagues. …… <br />
<br />
Here, Chang’s war stories are interwoven with talks of fashion.<br />
<br />
“Stories from the Ashes,” in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly 5'' (February, 1944).<br />
<br />
随后，苏蕾卡加入了国防部队，成为红十字会的替补护士。人们经常看到她蹲在地上，劈柴生火，穿着绣有“寿”字的铜红和墨绿色丝袍。多么浪费时间，但对她来说，这一切都是值得的。这套漂亮的服装赋予了她前所未有的自信;如果没有这些，她就不可能和男同事相处得这么好。……<br />
<br />
在这里，张彤彤在战争中发生的故事与时尚话题交织在一起。<br />
<br />
“灰烬的故事”，摘自《天地月刊5》(1944年2月)。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 13:37, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Fashion is no longer a form of creative life that only occupies the space of leisure; rather, it becomes an essential medium through which an individual could finally comprehend the world that is otherwise incomprehensible, name the surroundings that are otherwise unnamable, and determine her own gender and ethnic identities that are otherwise indeterminate.<br />
<br />
The ending of the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” also consists of a parable:<br />
<br />
……an autumnal chill in approaching dusk as vendors at a vegetable market prepare to pack up and go home. Fish scraps and pale green corn husks litter the ground.<br />
<br />
<br />
时尚不再是一种只占休闲空间的创意生活形式。 相反，它成为一种基本的媒介，个人可以通过该媒介最终理解原本无法理解的世界，为原本无法命名的环境命名，并确定本来无法确定的性别和种族身份。<br />
<br />
《更衣记》这篇文章的结尾也包含了一个寓言:<br />
<br />
......在临近黄昏的秋意中，蔬菜市场的小贩们准备打包回家。地上散落着鱼屑和浅绿色的玉米皮。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
时尚不再是一种只占休闲空间的创意生活形式。相反，它成为了一种基本的媒介，个人可以通过该媒介最终理解原本无法理解的世界，命名原本无法命名的环境，并确定本来无法确定的性别和种族身份。<br />
《更衣记》这篇文章的结尾也包含了一个寓言故事:<br />
......在临近黄昏，寒意袭人的秋天，菜市场的小贩们准备收拾整理好回家。鱼屑和浅绿色的玉米皮被随意丢弃在地上。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 06:20, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
A child dashes over on his bike just to show off. He gives out a shout, lets go of the handlebars, and shoots away effortlessly, swaying back and forth all the while. At that split second, everyone on the street watches him with an indefinable admiration. Perhaps in this life that moment of letting go is the very loveliest? <br />
<br />
This scene seems detached from Chang’s detailed descriptions of the transformation of fashion trends, but it can be read a parable of how fashion actually functions in everyday life. It is exactly that moment of “letting go,” that is, the moment that one gains the power and freedom to go beyond immediate material and political conditions, that captures the essence of fashion in Chang’s world.<br />
<br />
Translated by Andrew F. Jones.（注释）<br />
<br />
一个孩子骑着自行车神气地飞奔过来。他空喊了一声，双手一下松开了车把，任自行车肆意地向前冲，不断地来回摇摆。此刻，街上的人都用一种说不出的羡慕的眼神看着他。也许在这一生中，那一瞬间的放手是最可爱的？ 这一幕似乎脱离了张国荣对时尚潮流转变的描述，但却可以读出时尚在日常生活中的实际作用。恰恰是那种 "放手 "的时刻，也就是获得超越眼前物质和政治条件的力量和自由的时刻，抓住了张国荣世界中时尚的本质。 译者：安德鲁 F. 吉恩斯（注释）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:55, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
一个小孩骑着自行车冲过来，只是为了炫耀一下自己。他大叫一声，放开车把，然后毫不费力地甩了出去，一路上来回摇晃着。在那一刹那，街上的每个人都带着一种难以形容的钦佩注视着他。也许在这一生中放手的那一刻是最可爱的? <br />
<br />
这一幕似乎脱离了张国荣对时尚潮流转变的描述，但却可以读出时尚在日常生活中的实际作用。恰恰是那种 "放手 "的时刻，也就是获得超越眼前物质和政治条件的力量和自由的时刻，抓住了张国荣世界中时尚的本质。 译者：安德鲁 F. 吉恩斯（注释）--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:59, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Here the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for women writers in their entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, women writers as individuals can become concrete historical subjects within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为了女性作家进入文学世界的一个开放的、持续的过程，也成为了一个试验场，在这里，文坛和更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化。不仅生活方式可以被当成文章阅读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众的界限进一步模糊，传记性的偶发事件成为构筑新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为女作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放性的持续过程，也成为一个试验场，在这个试验场中文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定，并且不断变化。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，作为个体的女作家也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公共的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:28, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
'''Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay'''<br />
<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children'''<br />
<br />
''Daniel A. Fried''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
All genres contain political possibilities, but the essay seems entitled to a particularly strong claim on politics. In the Chinese modernist context, it should be clear that one cannot understand the development of nationalism without reference to the huge body of political essays published in decades of periodicals, and equally clear that one must take stock of nationalist writings in trying to understand the generic qualities of the essay. And within our international scholarly dialogue, it seems necessary to locate the modern Chinese essay with regard to the various postulates of postcolonial theory.<br />
<br />
“论文中的意识形态观点”<br />
<br />
“朱自清，弗朗茨·法农，和凶猛的白人孩子”<br />
<br />
“丹尼尔A.弗里德”<br />
<br />
“概要”<br />
<br />
所有体裁都包含政治可能性，但这篇文章似乎有权对政治提出特别强烈的主张。在中国现代主义环境中，我们应该清楚地看到，如果不参考几十年期刊上发表的大量政治文章，就无法理解民族主义的发展；同样，我们必须审视民族主义作品，试图理解这篇文章的共性。在我们的国际学术对话中，似乎有必要根据有关后殖民理论的各种假设来定位中国现代散文.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 11:25, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
This is not easy--the relation of Chinese materials to theory has of course been debated at length, with wide disagreements over the applicability of the standard models.Indeed, the applicability of postcolonialism to several literatures has been questioned as critiques of essentialized difference have been turned against the general conclusions of postcolonial discourse itself.While theoretical contextualization of Chinese political essays seems necessary, there is no critical consensus on what theories to apply.<br />
<br />
这并不容易——毋庸置疑，中国作品与理论的关系长期备受争议，在标准模型的适用性上存在广泛的分歧。的确，后殖民主义在一些文学作品中的适用性已经受到质疑，因为对本质差异的批判已经转向反对后殖民语篇的一般结论。尽管中国政论文的理论语境化似乎是必要的，但在应用何种理论上却没有出现批判性的共识。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper will attempt to contextualize by ignoring the oversimplified question of whether postcolonial theory is or is not applicable to Chinese modernist essays.<br />
<br />
本文试图将后殖民理论是否适用于中国现代主义随笔这一过于简单化的问题置于语境中。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Instead, it seeks to perform a case study in theoretical analysis of a Chinese essay which goes beyond the simple importation of “foreign” theory, to suggest the outlines of dialogue between scholars of Chinese and other anticolonial nationalisms. Specifically, it compares Zhu Ziqing's experience of a white childs gaze in the essay, “White People--God's Proud Children!” to a similar experience of Frantz Fanon recorded in his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''. Using the theme of the racial others gaze as a methodological allegory, it seeks to show how these two texts can be made to “gaze” at each other, to inform each other in ways which are theoretically suggestive while respecting local difference.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
While Zhus essay seems in many ways to perfectly invoke the most familiar tropes of “Western” theory, Zhu's reaction to the gaze is ultimately opposite to Fanon's, and demonstrates how anticolonial writing is enmeshed both in internationa lpsychological constants and local historical variables.<br />
<br />
Scholarly investigation of the modern Chinese essay as a genre demands some attention to the questions posed by postcolonial theories. The same could be said of all genres of the period, but the essay has a special claim on postcolonialism. All genres were used politically, but the essay was usually seen in high modern China as the prime vehicle for explicit politics, the forum best suited for debate and rebuttal, and explication of specific political programs.<br />
<br />
虽然朱自清的文章似乎在很多方面都完美地引用了 "西方"理论中最熟悉的典故，但他对目光的反应却与法农截然相反，并展示了反殖民主义写作是如何被国际心理学常态和地方历史变数所困扰的。<br />
<br />
中国现代散文是一种文体，对它进行学术研究需要对后殖民主义理论提出的问题给予关注，可以说这个时期所有文体的学术研究都需要这么做，但散文对后殖民主义有着特殊的诉求。所有的文体都服务于政治，但在近代中国，散文通常被视为明确政治的首要载体，是最适合辩论和反驳、阐释具体政治方案的场所。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:44, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Of course, there is no scholarly consensus in the field as to the extent to which postcolonial theories can or cannot be applied to modern Chinese literature. For example, Rey Chow in her 1993 ''Writing Diaspora'' produced a well-known critique of the resistance to theory by scholars of Chinese literature, arguing that the claims of untheorizable Chinese particularity are merely reintroductions of an old Orientalist cultural essentialism. Last year, Leo Lee concluded his study of Shanghai urban culture by restating the very same arguments which Chow had dismissed, making the case that theory based on native internalization of the Western “othering” gaze was not directly applicable because the Western imperialist presence in China, even in the Shanghai concession zones, never gained the colonialist control over language and education that produced such psychic disruptions in other societies. <br />
<br />
Rey Chow, ''Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies''. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）<br />
<br />
<br />
当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对古老的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，结束了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，哪怕是在上海租界，西方帝国主义的存在从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，而这种控制在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:57, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学研究学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对老式的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，总结了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，哪怕是在上海租界，西方帝国主义从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，然而这种控制却在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。<br />
Rey Chow，Writing Diaspora：Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:15, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
We must stutter out some engagement with postcolonial theory, but how can one proceed without the safety of scholarly consensus? One could dive into polemics, but a decision that either theory is or isn't always applicable to Chinese literature assumes the existence of twin essentialized monoliths called “theory” and “Chinese literature.” We need more nuanced approaches. In fact, the terms of mainline postcolonial theory do furnish the conceptual tools with which one can derive one such approach. The very familiar discussions of the gaze of the imperial subject toward the colonized other can be employed as a metaphor for our own predicament.<br />
<br />
我们必须提到后殖民理论，但没有学术共识作为保障，如何进行？我们可以潜入论战，但关于理论是否始终适用于中国文学的决定假定了 "理论 "和 "中国文学 "这两个本质化的单体的存在。我们需要更细致的方法。事实上，主流后殖民主义理论的术语确实提供了概念工具，人们可以用这些工具推导出这样一种方法。我们非常熟悉的关于帝国主体对被殖民地关注的讨论，可以作为我们自身困境的隐喻。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
One of the major variations on this theme, deriving from the writings of Frantz Fanon, should be familiar: by their imperial gaze, aggressor cultures try to lock their colonized subjects into a perpetual Otherdom, with the aggressor National Subject claiming for itself a transcendent metaphysical Selfhood; colonized individuals must view themselves as Other and therefore are alienated from themselves. The solutions the discourse has found are ways in which those individuals can subvert that Otherdom in order to reclaim for themselves a new or reconstituted Selfhood. The goal is not to fall into nativist atavism and rejection of the metropole, but to eliminate dominance and blur the margins of identity, allowing a more healthful parity in the identification dialectic between colonizer and colonized.<br />
弗朗兹·法农的作品中产生了这一主题的主要变题之一，大家应该对此都很熟悉：在帝国主义的视角下，侵略者文化尝试将殖民对象封锁进永恒的他者国度，只有侵略国家自称为超验的形而上学的自我：被殖民的人必须把自己当做他者因此只能异化。对于这一问题找到的答案便是通过推翻他者国度从而为自己重建一个自我。目的不在于陷入本土主义者的返祖主义，拒绝城市，而是削弱统治，使身份边界模糊化，让殖民者和被殖民者在身份的辩证识别上有更健康的对等。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
If it is a common complaint that postcolonial theory is a creation of the metropole which should not be allowed to dominate local Chinese historical experience, the solution should not be nativist assertion of Chinese difference and superiority, with consequent ignoring of the varied experiences of imperialism from which the systems of theory have been derived. Rather, once we reject the notion that metropolitan theory has an omniscient gaze which alone possesses the right to define the meaning of Chinese texts, we are free to see how Chinese and non-Chinese experiences of imperialism can inform each other, through their mutual attractions and tensions which complicate questions of identity.<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍认为后殖民理论是大都市的创造，不应让其支配中国本土的历史经验，那么解决办法就不应是本土主义武断地主张中国的差异和优越性，一直忽视理论体系是从帝国主义的各种经验是衍生出来的。相反，一旦我们拒绝了大都市理论无所不能、只有它才有权定义中文文本的含义的观点，我们就可以自由地看到，中国和非中国的帝国主义经历是如何通过它们的相互吸引和紧张关系——这使身份问题复杂化——相互交流。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:39, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍抱怨后殖民主义理论是大都会的产物，且不应允许它主导中国本土的历史经验，那么，解决的办法就不应是本土主义地宣称中国人的差异性和优越性，从而忽视理论体系所衍生的各种帝国主义的经验。相反，一旦我们摒弃了大都会理论的全知角度，那就是它独自拥有定义中国文本意义的权利，我们就可以看到中国人和非中国人的帝国主义经验如何通过他们的相互吸引和紧张关系来相互交流，而这使认知问题变得复杂。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As an example of how to do this sort of theoretical application, I propose in this paper to compare Frantz Fanon's “The Fact of Blackness” (a chapter of his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''), with a little-known essay by Zhu Ziqing, “White People-God's Proud Children!” Both pieces focus on the narrators' experiences of meeting the gazes of white children, and thus invoke classic themes which allow easy access to theoretical considerations even in the midst of a particularistic analysis. And because both describe politicized experience, they avoid the old Orientalist dichotomy of Western theory vs. native experience. Both Fanon and Zhu are equally theoretical and experiential, and they inform each other.<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的例子，我在本文中拟将弗朗茨·法农的《黑的事实》（他的典籍《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一章）与朱自清的一篇鲜为人知的文章《白种人，上帝的骄子！》进行比较。这两篇作品都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光交汇的经历，因此引用了经典的主题，即使在特殊主义的分析中，也能很容易进行理论思考。而且由于两者都描述了政治化的经验，因此避免了西方理论的老东方主义与本土经验的抉择。弗朗茨和朱自清都同样具有理论性和经验性，且互相借鉴。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的一个例子，笔者拟在本文中对弗朗茨·法农的《黑人的事实》(他的经典《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一个章节)与朱自清鲜为人知的文章《白种人——上帝的骄子!》进行比较。这两篇文章都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光相遇的经历，因此援引了经典主题，即使在进行具象分析中，也能很容易地进行理论思考。而且因为两者都描述了政治化的经验，他们避免了西方理论与本土经验的古老东方主义之争。法农和朱自清都具有同样的理论和经验，且相互借鉴。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:12, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[File:Example.jpg]]==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
“The Fact of Blackness” is Fanon's analysis of a black man's frustration in attempting to create a viable self-identity in the France of the 1950's. Analysis in the psychoanalytic sense, not the scientific-sociological one; or, better still, ''self-analysis'', for the chapter is cast in the form of a first-person narrative. Fanon writes a sort of psychoanalytically fueled prose poem. There are few objective assertions made about “the way it is”; the problem is seen from what appears to be the inside of a black man's head, what he feels and how he reacts to the shiftingly solid front of White France arrayed against him..<br />
<br />
Not necesssarily Fanon's. In his introduction, Fanon writes that in this chapter, “we observe the desperate struggles of a Negro who is driven to discover the meaning of black identity." Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 16. The wording here suggests a fictional narrator. Nonetheless, one guesses that it is a fictualized Fanon, and I will use “Fanon” as a convenience in place of “the narrator” for the remainder of this paper.（注释）<br />
<br />
<br />
“黑人事实”是法农（Fanon) 对黑人试图在1950年代的法国创造可行的自我身份的挫败感的分析。心理分析意义上的分析，不是科学社会学意义上的分析；或更好的是“自我分析”，因为本章以第一人称叙述的形式呈现。法农写了一首精神分析的散文诗。很少有人对“现状”作出客观的断言;这个问题可以从一个黑人的大脑内部看出来，他的感受，以及他对反对他的法国白人坚实的立场的反应。<br />
<br />
<br />
不一定是法农的。法农在其引言中写道，在本章中，“我们观察到黑人被迫探索黑人身份的绝望斗争。”法兰兹·范农，《黑皮肤，白色面具》，查尔斯·林·马克曼译（纽约：格罗夫出版社，1967年）16.这里的措辞暗示着一个虚构的叙述者，尽管如此，有人猜测这是一个虚构的法农，在本文的其余部分中，我将使用“范农”代替“叙述者”。 （注释）--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Some of the most striking and most quoted parts of this narrative are Fanon's attempts to deal with the intrusive voice of the white child who cries out in fear of him:<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was an external stimulus that flicked over me as I passed by. I made a tight smile.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was true. It amused me.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” The circle was drawing a bit tighter. I made no secret of my amusement.<br />
<br />
“Mama, see the Negro! I'm frightened!” Frightened! Frightened! Now they were beginning to be afraid of me. I made up my mind to laugh myself to tears, but laughter had become impossible.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是 Fanon 试图处理白人儿童因害怕他而大声呼喊的侵扰性声音：<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”当我经过时，一种外在的刺激掠过我的心头。我笑得很紧。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”是真的。我很开心。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈越来越紧了。我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，看那黑鬼！我吓坏了！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心要笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:18, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和最常被引用的部分，是法侬试图处理那个白人孩子因为害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音:<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我的头顶。我紧张地笑了笑。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”圆圈变得更紧了。我毫不掩饰自己的快乐。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，你看那个黑人!我害怕!”吓!吓坏了!现在他们开始害怕我了。我决定笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:14, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种叙述中一些最引人注目和被引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人儿童因为害怕他而大声疾呼发出的侵扰声音：<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我。我紧张地笑了。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是真的。它逗乐了我。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈画的更紧了。我掩饰不住快乐。<br />
“妈妈，看黑人！我害怕！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心笑出眼泪，但笑声已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:41, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人孩子因害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音：<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”我路过时，一个声音从我耳边掠过，我紧张地笑了。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”神经更紧绷了，我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，你看那个黑人！我害怕！”害怕呀！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心最好笑出眼泪来，但这已经不可能了。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
In this passage as elsewhere in the chapter, there are many voices accusing Fanon, yet the voice of the child has a special bluntness, one that hits Fanon harder. Beneath that voice, his attempt to defend himself through an ever-increasing amusement is undone; the child unmasks his anguish. He is for Fanon not just a historical boy, nor an empirical average of thousands of trembling boys, but a resonance of something deeper within Fanon's narrative. Fanon does not devote an inordinate amount of space to the child, and it would be an exaggeration to say that the appearances of this child constitute the thematic center of his chapter. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, the white child does play a crucial role, as he is in fact a grotesque foil for Fanon's own exasperated narrative voice, which is a rewriting, for race, of narratives of developmental psychology. In particular, Jacques Lacan's famous theory of the “mirror stage” is clearly its primary inspiration. Even though Fanon never makes explicit reference to Lacan or “The Mirror Stage” in the chapter, such references are numerous in Black Skin, White Masks as a whole-there is no doubt that Fanon knew the paradigm well. And the structure of his narrative runs suspiciously parallel to Lacan's explications, so much that it might be fair to call “The Fact of Blackness” an ironic rewriting of “The Mirror Stage.”<br />
<br />
尽管如此，这个白人孩子确实扮演了一个重要的角色，因为他实际上是Fanon自己恼怒的叙述声音的怪诞衬托，这是对种族、发展心理学叙述的重写。特别是雅克·拉康著名的“镜像舞台”理论，显然是其主要灵感来源。尽管法农在本章中从未明确提及拉康或“镜子舞台”，但这样的提及在黑皮肤、白面具中比比皆是——毫无疑问，法农非常了解这个范式。他的叙述结构与拉康的解释平行，甚至可以说《黑人的事实》是对《镜子舞台》的讽刺重写。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:49, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Lacan's theory is complex, moving in unexpected directions and drawing different sets of conclusions. But all are sourced in the moment of a baby before a mirror, fascinated to discover itself for the first time. The stage at which this critical fascination can occur lasts from the age of six to eighteen months, according to Lacan, and its primary importance is in providing the infant with a temporary shortcut to mature subjectivity. In his words, the mirror “precipitates” the child's I in a “primordial form, before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other, and before language restores to it, in the universal, its function as subject.” <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In contrast, Fanon only reaches his version of the mirror stage ''after'' passing through objectification and restoration to subjectivity. His “mirror stage” is precisely the quest for subjectivity narrated through the “plot” outlined above. But this plot is skewed¬-consider Lacan's discussion of the mirror stage itself:<br />
<br />
The fact is that the total form of the body by which the subject anticipates in a mirage the maturation of his power is certainly more constituent than constituted, but in which it appears to him above all in a contrasting size (''un relief de stature'') that fixes it and in a symmetry that inverts it, in contrast with the turbulent movement that the subject feels are animating him.<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复到主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。 他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，请思考拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
事实是，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:17, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，需要考虑拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
实际上，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Fanon's mirror is of course the White. In that mirror he is inverted, re-created as an image exactly opposite to his own reality, and it is only through that inversion, that ''perversion'' of his Self that he is allowed to know himself. And, moreover, that inversion is ''fixed'' in the mirror, as Fanon puts it, fixed as a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. No matter how Fanon questions, no matter what rhetorical tack he chooses to confront the mirror, it refuses to give back any other image. Does Fanon feel a universal, rational soul animating himself? Does he well up with the turbulence of an earth-poetry that takes him to the magic font of his humanity? It does not matter. The mirror is impervious and flat. His image is fixed.<br />
<br />
法农的镜子当然是白色的。在那面镜子里，他被颠倒了，被重新塑造成了一个与现实中的自己完全相反的形象。他也只有通过这种倒位，通过这种对自我的扭曲，才被允许认知自己。而且，正如法农所说，这种倒位在镜子中是固定的，就像化学溶液被染料固定一样。无论法农如何提问，无论他选择用怎样夸张的策略来面对镜子，它都拒绝给出任何其他的形象。法农是否感觉到一个普通又理性的灵魂在激励着自己?他是否很好地适应了尘世诗歌将他带到自身人性的神奇源泉所引起的动荡? 这无所谓。这面镜子不透水，而且是平的。他的形象是固定的。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:37, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
法农的镜子当然是白色的。在那面镜子里，他被颠覆了，被重新塑造成了一个与现实中的自己完全相反的形象。只有通过这种倒位，通过这种对自我的扭曲，他才能认识自己。而且，正如法农所说，这种倒位在镜子中是固定的，就像化学溶液被染料固定一样。无论法农如何提问，无论他选择用怎样夸张的策略来面对镜子，它都拒绝给出任何其他的形象。法农是否感觉到一个普通又理性的灵魂在激励着自己?他是否很好地适应了尘世诗歌将他带到自身人性的神奇源泉所引起的动荡? 这无所谓。这面镜子不透水，而且是平的。他的形象是固定的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:56, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Lacan tells us that the function of the mirror stage “is to establish a relation between the organism and its reality - or, as they say, between the ''Innenwelt'' and the ''Umwelt''.” For Lacan, it is the organism itself which determines and creates the relation, it creates its reality, but Fanon feels himself to be “overdetermined from without,” he is created by the White reality.<br />
<br />
That relation is an average of many different species of dominance. But perhaps more than any other, it is the dominance of an adult over a child. Listen again to the voices which fix Fanon: “Understand, my dear ''boy'', color prejudice is something I find entirely foreign.” <br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
“Gently, in the tone that one uses with a ''child'', they introduced me to the existence of a certain view that was held by certain people.” “now and then when we are worn out by our lives in big buildings, we will turn to you as we do to our ''children''-to the innocent, the ingenuous, the spontaneous. We will turn to you as to the ''childhood'' of the world.” (italics mine) The White mirror thus fixes Fanon as a perpetual infant, the Black “boy” who embodies youthful naiveté. He knows he is in the mirror stage, he is an infant who has already read Lacan, and he is desperate to find in the mirror the image which will allow him to realize his ''I'', but the mirror always gives him back his infant inverse. He cannot realize himself, he can never leave the mirror stage, he is ''fixed''.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a point of entry into the subsurface struggle of the text. The child is Fanon's parallel and his foil: “look, a nigger, it's cold, the nigger is shivering because he is cold, the little boy is trembling because he is afraid of the nigger, the nigger is shivering with cold, the cold that goes through your bones, the handsome little boy is trembling because he thinks that the nigger is quivering with rage, the little boy throws himself into his mother's arms: Mama, the nigger's going to eat me up.”[ Fanon, 114.] The boy mirrors Fanon, but ironically: his freedom to be afraid, his freedom even to see an Other that is not synonymous with the Self[ Fanon asserts thtat the black is not Other to the white, but his argument is that the white claims he does not need to go through identification with the black-as-Other in order to come to a realization of the Sel; on the contrary, White simply “is”; black is not-White. But though the white does not idenify through the black Other, this of course does not mean that Fanon is asserting that the white does not identify the black as Other.] is a mockery of the boyhood which Fanon cannot escape. One might even profitably read this mirroring as a form of mimicry.<br />
<br />
因此，白人孩子是进入文本深层斗争的切入点。孩子法农的对比和衬托:“看，一个黑鬼，很冷，黑鬼在颤抖，因为他很冷，小男孩在颤抖，因为他害怕黑人，黑人冷得直打哆嗦，寒冷刺骨，英俊的小男孩在颤抖，因为他认为黑鬼是在愤怒的颤抖。小男孩投入母亲的怀里：“妈妈，黑鬼会吃我。”[Fanon, 114.]男孩模仿法农，但具有讽刺意味的是：他害怕自由，甚至看到一个不等同于自我的自由。法农断言只有黑白色没有其他，但他认为白色声称他不需要经过鉴定黑色选取的顺序来实现；相反，白色只是白色；黑色是不是白人。但是，尽管白人不能通过黑人的他者来识别他们，这当然并不意味着法侬断言白人不能将黑人识别为他者，这是对法侬无法逃避的少年时代的嘲弄。人们甚至可以将这种镜像理解为一种模仿的形式。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:00, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
In standard postcolonial discourse, “mimicry” refers to either a pseudo-imitation forced on the colonized by the colonizer who wants the colonized to “be like” the colonizing cultural model, but not identical to it; or it can refer to deliberate ironization of such models by the colonized. Either case results in what Homi Bhabha calls a “double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority.”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.] However, as Diana Fuss notes, “the mimicry of subversion can find itself reinforcing conventional power relations rather than eroding them.”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] Fanon's experience is just such a case - the mimicry is the white boy's, not Fanon's, and its effect is not at all disruptive, but reinforces the conventional power relations.<br />
<br />
在标准的后殖民话语中，“模仿”指的是殖民者强迫被殖民者变得“像”殖民地文化模式，但与之不完全相同的伪模仿；也可以指被殖民者对这种模式的刻意讽刺。任何一种情况都会导致霍米·巴哈所说的“在揭露殖民话语的矛盾性的同时也会破坏其权威的双重视野”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.]然而，正如戴安娜·福斯所说，“颠覆的模仿会发现自己在强化传统的权力关系而非削弱。”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] 法农的经历就是这样一个例子——模仿是白人男孩的，而不是法农的，它根本没有破坏性，反而强化了传统的权力关系。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The boy thinks he is in danger of assault and trembles; in fact, it is Fanon who trembled first, who is the one really exposed to violence, and who is in fact ''being assaulted'' by the boy's unwitting mimicry of his weakness.<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a cruel unwitting joker who offers Fanon seeming doors of rhetorical escape into maturity, then frustrates him, turns him back on himself, locks him into the image of “the childhood of the world.” And the most destructive part is that the child does not know he is the god's mask; he screams as an innocent and can leap to the mother's arms. Fanon screams, and the monstrous mirror stays silvery and cold: it inverts and it fixes, but it never recognizes.<br />
<br />
“White People-God's Proud Children!” was written in direct response to (and less than three weeks after) the “May 30 Massacre.”<br />
<br />
男孩认为自己有被攻击的危险，吓得发抖;事实上，首先颤抖的是法龙（Fanon），真正遭受暴力的是法龙，实际上也是法龙被男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点所攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑，他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后让他沮丧，让他回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:05, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
男孩感觉自己有被攻击的危险而吓得发抖;事实上，首先战栗的是法龙（Fanon），他是真正遭受暴力的人。实际上是因为男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点才导致法农被攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑。他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后又让他沮丧而回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:00, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In mid-May of 1925, factory workers at a Japanese plant in Shanghai went on strike, and then stormed the factory grounds, demanding back wages. The Japanese managers shot and killed the strike leader and injured several others, prompting more general strikes at other Japanese factories by 20,000 workers. Students soon joined the workers in protest, and several were arrested inside the foreign concessionary zone. On May 30, the date scheduled for the trial of those arrested, 2,000 students marched on the concessionary zone demanding the release of the students and workers. In response, British troops arrested a hundred of those assembled. News of the new arrests spread rapidly, and by later that day, several thousand Shanghainese of different levels of society had surrounded the Nanjing Road jail where the protesters were being held, demanding their release. At this point, the British opened fire, killing a dozen or so Chinese and wounding several dozen.<br />
<br />
1925年5月中旬，上海一家日本工厂工人罢工，然后冲进工厂，要求讨回工资。工厂日本经理射杀了罢工领袖，打伤数名工人，导致其他日本工厂2,0000工人发起了更大规模的罢工。学生很快加入工人抗议，随后部分学生在租界遭到逮捕。5月30日原定是遭逮捕的工人和学生受审日子，2,000学生在租界游行示威，要求释放学生和工人。作为回应，英国士兵逮捕了数百名示威者。这一消息很快传开来，当天晚些时候，几千名上海社会人士包围了关押抗议者的南京路监狱，要求释放他们。鉴于此，英军开火，射杀了十几名中国人，打伤几十中国人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Nationwide protests of various sorts erupted immediately, including several literary protests, two by Zhu: “Blood Song,” an incendiary poem composed on June 10, and “White People,” written nine days later.<br />
<br />
The essay never refers explicitly to the May 30 incident; rather, it is the narration and explication of an incident which Zhu experienced on a Shanghai city trolley. After boarding and going to the first-class seats, Zhu sits down across from two white people, apparently a father and son. Zhu marvels at the lovely features of the boy, who looks eleven or twelve, and then goes into an explanation of how he has been fascinated with children ever since a friendship in elementary school with a shy younger boy named Liu Jun. He admits that he loves to stare at young children, and that he stared therefore at the white child.<br />
<br />
各行各业的抗议行动在全国范围内一触即发，包括了几个文学的抗议行动，其中就有朱自清的两部作品，其一是创作于6月10日的诗篇《血歌》，表现了火山爆发式的强烈情感，九天后，朱自清又写下另一篇文章《白种人——上帝的骄子》。<br />
虽然这篇文章从未明确指出“五卅”惨案，但朱自清在上海的一路电车上的亲见亲闻刚好记述和解释了这次事件的情况。朱上电车之后，走进头等座里，和两个白种人并排而坐，他猜想那两人是一对父子。小男孩看上去十一二岁的样子，他惊羡于小男孩的可爱容貌，解释说自己多么想要跟这个男孩亲近，因为这让他想起了自己初中时的一个叫做刘君的玩伴，也是一个害羞的小男孩。他承认自己喜欢凝视小孩子，所以才会对这个白人小孩多看了几眼。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 03:39, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Unlike most children, disturbed by his staring, the white child appears to take no notice, but then, when he and his father are about to get off the trolley, the child flashes a violent, mimicking stare back at Zhu. The author hears words in the stare: “There were words in his eyes: 'Hah! Yellow man, yellow chinaman, you-you go ahead and look! You are worthy of looking at me!” Zhu feels this stare as a physical assault, and feels first terrified, and then patriotically enraged. He then explains his desire for a nationality-trumping universalism, but also doubts its possibility, since such a young child had already been socialized into acceptance of racist categories. Yet he praises the child for exhibiting masculine forcefulness, and claims that this is “what makes whites white.” Finally, he declares himself conflicted on the subject of nationalism versus universalism, ending the essay unresolved.<br />
<br />
与大多数孩子不一样，这个白人小孩对于朱自清的打量毫不在意，但当白人小孩和他的父亲准备下电车时，那个孩子怒目回望了朱一眼。朱从该怒视里读出：“哈，黄种人，黄种中国人，你继续看吧！你也就配看着我的份了！”朱从中感到一种身体上的攻击，一开始觉得害怕，然后带有爱国主义的愤怒喷涌而出。他在文中解释道，这样一个年幼的孩子都已经为社会所同化，接受了种族主义的范畴，虽然自己渴望国籍优先的普遍主义，但同时也怀疑这个普遍主义的可能性。然而，他赞赏这个孩子表现出的男性之力量，同时也认为这点是“白人的典型特征”。最后，他对于民族主义和普遍主义的问题上产生了矛盾，直到文末该问题也悬而未决。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
和大多数的孩子不同，白人小孩起初没有注意到朱的目光，当感觉到有人在看他后，他和父亲正要下电车，接着小孩向朱回了恶狠狠的目光。朱从他的怒视中读到：“咄！黄种人，黄种的支那人，你——你看吧！你也配看我！”朱从中感觉遭到了人身攻击，首先是张皇失措，而后他的爱国热枕喷涌而出。他解释说自己盼望的是国籍优先的普遍主义，可是眼看这个孩子小小年纪就已被社会所同化，接受了种族主义，他便开始怀疑普遍主义是否还有实现的可能。然而，他对孩子展现出来的男性力量表示赞赏，“这正说明了白人之所以为白人”。最后，他陷入了民族主义和普遍主义的矛盾之中，直到结尾，文章也未给出解决的方案。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 03:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Given the Fanon-inspired traditions of Western postcolonial invocations of the Other, one might from a Western perspective expect Zhu to react to the gaze of the child with a crisis of ''personal'' identity. This is, after all, Fanon's Odyssean quest in “The Fact of Blackness”: to negotiate or seize for himself a space for valued selfhood against the demeaning voices of White France which try to lock him into an Otherness to itself, to himself , to the possibility of humanity. Zhu's reaction certainly fits, in name, the Self-Other trope: he experiences the white child as very White and Other. And the incident deeply traumatic: “This sudden assault made me panic; my heart was void, on all sides there was a very heavy pressure, making me unable to breathe freely.” But the incident does not fit the mirror-stage model as transmitted by Fanon.<br />
<br />
鉴于法农对西方后殖民的祈祷，某人从西方角度来看可能希望朱自清对带有个人身份危机的小孩的凝视作出回应。毕竟，这是法农在“黑暗事实”中的奥德赛追求：为自己谈判或夺取有价值的自我空间，反对法国白人的贬低之声，试图使他陷入一个不同于自己、不同于人性可能性的不同物中。朱自清的反应确实很适合自己-他人的修辞：他对白人小孩的经历很像白人与其他人的经历。这一事件深深地伤害了我：“这次突然袭击使我感到恐慌；我的心是空虚的，四面都是沉重的压力，使我无法自由地呼吸。”但该事件不符合法农传递的镜像阶段模型。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There is no reference to psychical development, and therefore no hint that the quasi-colonialist aggression experienced through the gaze is constitutive, that it denies an authentic Chinese subjectivity to Zhu and replaces it with an ironclad Otherness to himself.<br />
Rather, it confirms Zhu's sense of self by provoking an immediate nationalistic response. After recovering from the shock of the gaze, he immediately “was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” He then reflects on the child's face and action and straightaway abstracts them into a symptom of history:<br />
<br />
That which made me panic and feel terrified, was that this one lording it over me, trampling me, was no one but...a ten year-old white “child”! I always have felt that children belong to the world, and ought not to be of a single race, country, town, or family...<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
But this ten year-old white child...had already understood the situation well enough to use racial advantage and national power to assault me with a thrust of his face. This assault was actually the small shadow of multiple assaults, and his face was the small-print version of a history of Chinese foreign relations.[ Zhu Ziqing, Zhu Ziqing Quanji, Vol. 1 (Jiangsu, Jiangsu Educational Press) 45.]<br />
<br />
Despite our Fanon-inspired suspicions about his psychology, Zhu insists that the shock he received, the pressure, the difficulty breathing, was the result of his ''theoretical'' realization that the child was not innocent but had already been corrupted into the fabric of violence from which Sino-Western relations had been cut. The normal, the psychological-these responses are leapt over, the incident is abstracted directly into a symptom of history. And, at least on the surface, this fact might seem to confirm the anti-theoretical position which claims that postcolonial criticism is irrelevant to China because China never sunk into full colonial status.<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子已经非常了解这种情况了，甚至可以利用种族优势和国家权力以他的面目攻击我。 这次袭击实际上是多次袭击的一个小阴影，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，但朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力，呼吸困难是他“理论上”意识到孩子不是无辜的，而是被中西关系断绝所产生的暴力侵蚀。<br />
正常的，这些心理的反应被跳过了，事件被直接抽象为历史的象征。 而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该立场声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民地状态。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子……已经非常了解这种情况了，他可以利用种族优势和国家权力的面目攻击我。这次袭击实际上是数次袭击的影子，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力和呼吸困难，是他从“理论上”认识到这个孩子不是无辜的，而是已经腐坏成中西关系已被割断的、暴力的结果。跳过正常的心理的反应，这个事件被抽象成历史的症状。而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该主张声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民状况。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
One could easily derive a trajectory from comparative history to the differences in the two men's encounters with white children, a trajectory whose terms are familiar but worth rehearsing. Fanon's Martinique was almost totally cut off from racial history, national language, and cultural identity. Any nationalism that arose from such soil would have had to have been as a reconstruction of African identity from zero, an almost impossible task. Therefore, Fanon's text has to start from the postcolonial present, analyzing the continuing damage of racism on subjugated black communities. Most of China, despite the extreme cultural upheavals which it experienced in reaction to Western aggression, never sunk into full-fledged colonial status; and therefore this aggression remained for the most part an influential and traumatic margin to the mainstream development of Chinese historical identity. There was no slavery, no tabula rasa, not even in Hong Kong and Macao, or Taiwan and “Manchuria.” <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
On the contrary, the experience of aggression undoubtedly strengthened national consciousness; and in modernist writings such as the one in question, it is rare to read a moment of experience of the Western Other as such which does not resort to some form of nationalism.<br />
<br />
Up to a point, this sort of analysis is useful. Certainly, it would be dangerous to move directly from historical sketches to windy declarations about the differences between African and Chinese literature. But the standard history does happen to match the particulars of these two authors' educational trajectories. The surface, then, of “White People” is simple and obvious in comparison with Fanon's text, forgoing psychological brooding to go straight to the main course of national pride. <br />
<br />
And yet, one wonders what lurks in the essay's depths, for this is a very unusual piece in Zhu's oeuvre.<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑加强了民族意识；在现代主义的著作中，如有关的著作中，很少读到对西方他者这样的经验不诉诸某种形式的民族主义的时刻。<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，这种分析是有用的。当然，如果直接从历史素描转向关于非洲文学和中国文学差异的风马牛不相及的宣言，是很危险的。 但标准的历史确实恰好符合这两位作家教育轨迹的特殊性。 那么，与法农的文字相比，《白衣人》的表面是简单而明显的，放弃了心理上的沉思，直奔民族自豪感的主菜。 <br />
<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑增强了民族意识。 在诸如此类的现代主义著作中，很少有人会读到西方他人的经历，因为这种经历不诉诸某种形式的民族主义。<br />
到目前为止，这种分析是有用的。 当然，直接从历史速写转变为关于非洲和中国文学之间差异的风马牛不相及的宣言将是危险的。 但是，标准的历史确实与这两位作者的教育轨迹相吻合。 因此，“白人”的表述与法农的著作相比是简单而明显的，它放弃了对民族自豪感的直觉。<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱自清的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Normally, Zhu Ziqing is one of the last authors one associates with fiery nationalism; rather, he is usually preoccupied with just the sort of psychological introspection which characterizes Fanon's text. Furthermore, the essay was written more than a year after the original trolley ride-could the strangely quick transition from individual experience to nationalist reflection be at least partly created under the influence to retell the story in the light of the May 30 incident?<br />
<br />
If one willfully forgets about the May 30 context of the essay and focuses on the details of the incident as Zhu narrates them, then a second and separate level of interpretation opens in the essay, one much more pregnant with Fanon-like psychological trauma. The widest portal to the inside of this essay is also its obvious crux: i.e., the white child's stare. The key to this portal is that that stare, as it happened empirically, was complete unto itself.<br />
<br />
朱自清可以算得上最后一位与激烈的民族主义联系在一起的作家，相反，他通常只专注于法侬文本中所特有的那种心理反省。从个人经历到民族主义反思的迅速转变是否部分原因是由于“五卅惨案”的影响?<br />
<br />
如果你有意忘记掉这篇文章“五卅惨案”的背景，而把重点放在朱叙述事件的细节上，那么这篇文章就开启了另一个层面的解读，一个充满法农式的心理创伤的解读。这篇文章最广阔的内部入口也是它明显的症结所在：即白人儿童的凝视。这个入口的关键是那种凝视，好像它是凭经验发生的，是完全独立的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 07:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
It was an act, an aggressive act, unaccompanied by words. When Zhu tells us that “there were words in his eyes,” he wants us to believe that the words came from the child himself, and in fact we can certainly believe that that is how Zhu experienced the stare, that he felt the hate speech jabbing out at him from those astonishing eyes. But yet the language admits its paternity: not the child, but Zhu himself. Zhu creates the meaning around the act of the stare, and his entire explication of the problem of racism is based, not upon what he hears, but upon what his unconscious hermeneutic tells him that he hears. Whereas Fanon lives in a shadowy world of little but voices shouting, “look, a Negro!” to Zhu there are no voices at all, only a reality of trolleys and white skin and violent stares to which he himself has to supply the verbal accompaniment.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
This is absolutely not to say that Zhu's experience of racism is imaginary, that he “shouldn't be so sensitive,” as racists say. No doubt, the child was acting racistly. But it is important to notice that the racism which Zhu attributes to the child is a simple one: the child is figured as a self-assured, mature, masculine aggressor; in fact all of these qualities which Zhu feels are surely exaggerated. He might have suspected that prepubescent white children are somehow super-matured macho-men, but hopefully we know better. For Zhu's stare was not the first the boy had received. Anyone who has had the experience of living as a racial minority in a non-pluralistic society knows what it is like to be stared at constantly; this is in fact the primary condition of Fanon's experience which makes “The Fact of Blackness” possible. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Thus, in this regard, Fanon is perhaps closer to the boy than to Zhu; or if this is too strong, we could say that Fanon is split between the boy and Zhu, that Zhu shares with Fanon the experience of being dissected by the gaze of the aggressor culture, but that the boy shares with him the constancy of being stared at for being a racial minority. The boy's position in China was obviously much higher than that of Fanon's in France, and therefore the stares he would have received much less negative; yet the mere fact of the constant stare itself can exert an intense psychical pressure, especially on a boy at an age at which deep doubts about his self-identity are forming. This is not at all to excuse the real racist content of the boy's angry glare; but it does suggest that the glare was a lashing-out from a position of weakness and insecurity, rather than from the heel-grinding arrogance which Zhu assumes.<br />
<br />
因此，在这方面，法侬也许比朱自清更像男孩；或者，如果这种说法过于绝对，我们可以说，法侬在男孩和朱自清之间是分裂的，朱自清和法侬一样，经历着被侵略者文化的凝视所解剖，但男孩和他一样，一样，始终被人盯着看，因为他是一个少数民族。这个男孩在中国的地位显然要比法侬在法国的地位高得多，因此他受到的负面目光也会少得多；然而，仅仅是持续的凝视本身就会产生一种强烈的心理压力，尤其是对于一个对自我身份正在形成深刻怀疑的年龄的男孩来说。这一点也不是为男孩愤怒的怒视中的真正种族主义内容开脱；但这确实表明，他的怒视是一种来自软弱和不安全感的鞭挞，而不是朱棣文所认为的那种傲慢自大。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Moreover, it is Zhu who initiated this discomforting dialogue of stares. Zhu's boy, like Fanon's, is a mimic, although his mimicry is just as problematic. As Homi Bhabha says, “the look of surveillance returns as the displacing gaze of the disciplined, where the observer becomes the observed and 'partial representation rearticulates the whole notion of ''identity ''and alienates it from essence,”[ Bhabha, 89.] but in this case the mimic gaze is the colonizer's , and it returns precisely as the establishment of racial boundaries. Certainly, Zhu felt this mimicry as an example of colonial aggression; it is only the boy who might have thought of the stare in Bhabha's terms, as his defense mechanism against a racially-motivated intrusion into his privacy.<br />
<br />
And Zhu's initiating stare is certainly racial (though not racist); he gloats over the boy's Caucasianness: “His white cheeks dashed with red and his long golden eyelashes revealed a peacefulness and elegance.”[ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
<br />
此外，正是朱自清发起了这场令人不安的凝视的对话。朱自清的儿子和法侬的儿子一样，是个模仿者，尽管他的模仿也有问题。正如霍米·巴巴所说，“监视的目光作为被训练者取代的凝视回归，观察者成为被观察的对象，‘部分表征重新表达了“身份”的整个概念，并将其与本质分离，’”[霍米·巴巴, 89。]但在这种情况下，模仿的目光是殖民者的目光，而这种目光的回归正是建立了种族界限。当然，朱自清认为这种模仿是殖民侵略的一个例子;只有这个男孩可能会想到，用霍米·巴巴的话说，这种盯着他看的眼神是他抵御种族主义侵犯隐私的防御机制。<br />
<br />
朱自清最初的凝视显然带有种族主义色彩(虽然不是种族主义);他沾沾自喜地欣赏着这个男孩的高加索气质:“他那雪白的脸颊上满是红晕，长长的金色睫毛流露出一种平和优雅的气质。”--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 09:10, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhu, of course, tries to cover this fact; this is the prime rhetorical function of the discussion of Liu Jun. Without that mini-narrative, Zhu would have had to go directly from a description of the boy's whiteness into the boy's violent reaction, thus allowing the reader to assume that Zhu's racial gaze is what produced that reaction, complicating the question of the child's aggression. Instead, Zhu asserts a different reason why he is staring: he simply likes children, he has ever since he used to play with that little Liu Jun boy. Zhu wants to figure his own gaze as mostly aracial and entirely beneficent, a happy celebration of innocence which is met by abrupt, mature, racist aggression, shocking him out of his reveries into a disturbed reflection on nationalism and interracial strife.<br />
<br />
Fine, so be it, Zhu's gaze is completely aracial, despite his gloating about pink cheeks and golden eyelashes. It is not therefore simple. Consider the bizarreness hidden in his self-justification:<br />
<br />
当然，朱试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种迷你叙事，朱将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
<br />
很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:14, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当然，朱自清试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军（Liu Jun）谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种短小叙事，朱自清将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱自清的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱自清宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
<br />
很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱自清的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:16, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
I have always had the sort of temperament whereby if I saw an amusing little child, I would always want to be on intimate terms with him...When I was in the upper grades of elementary school, in the attached building for the middle grades there was a boy named Liu Jun with raven-black Western-style hair, who was truly docile, like a bird....his face was always that undisturbed and earnest, though under his skin there must have burned the fires of intimacy. Several times I invited him to my home, but he was never willing to go; afterwards I didn't see him for two years, and then he died. I cannot forget him! I had held his little hand, and rubbed his round chin. If I meet a young child for the first time, I naturally can't do that, that would be a little awkward; nevertheless, that's unimportant, I can look at him- once, twice, ten times, dozens of times!<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热...在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般...他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 09:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热……。在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般……。他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Any given child probably won't pay much attention to people's eyes, so one can look at him with total freedom; it is not at all like furtive, covered glances at women. I have in the past stared at many children I had just met, and they never once protested, at most they pulled on the hand of their mother next to them, or leant on her knee, or looked at her once or twice. Therefore I was very bold. This time on the trolley my old temperament came back, and I looked again and again at that white child, that young Westerner![ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
''Sexuality! ''is the obvious cry which rises at the description of Liu Jun: the docility, the meekness, the holding and rubbing, the “fires of intimacy”--these elements conspire to suggest a nascent homosexuality.<br />
<br />
孩子们可能都不会多注意旁人的眼神，因此你便可以随心所欲地盯着他们看，这与对女人偷偷摸摸的扫视完全不同。 以前，我曾盯着许多我遇到的孩子看，他们从未抗拒过，最多是紧紧拉住旁边母亲的手，倚靠在膝盖上，或者看看自己。 因此，我胆子很大。 这次在电车上，我的老毛病又犯了，我一次又一次地看向那个白人孩子，那个年少的西方人！[朱，43.]<br />
<br />
在刘军的描写中，“性欲”呼之欲出：温顺，温柔，坚守和摩擦，“亲密之火”，这些元素都暗示着同性恋的萌芽。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:06, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Little Liu is dead, now, but there are substitutes swirling all around Zhu; he cannot touch them as he touched Liu, that would be socially impossible, but as a substitute he can stare with impunity, “dozens of times.” And the children do not protest his stares, they are docile-at most they squirm uncomfortably beneath Zhu's visual intrusion into their world. Zhu's relationship with children is therefore predicated by his dominance of them. He says at the opening of the paragraph that he wants to be intimate with children, but it is an intimacy of power forcing itself upon them.[ The evidence for Zhu's child-fetish is strongly corroborated by his other work. Apart from the focus on childhood in works like the famous, “Back Silhouette” (beiying), in another essay of his, “Children,” he goes so far as to explicitly admit to physical child abuse. ]<br />
<br />
Given these strange admissions, one sees Zhu's reaction to the white child's stare as much more complicated. Zhu experiences the stare as racism, and probably rightly so; yet it seems clear that he is also shocked by the reversal of power involved.<br />
<br />
小刘死了，但是现在有其他人围着朱自清打转；他不能像抚摸小刘那样摸其他孩子，这在社会上是不可能的，但作为补偿，他可以免受惩罚地盯着他们几十次。 孩子们对他的凝视并不反感，他们是温顺的——顶多就是在朱先生对他们世界的视觉侵扰下不舒服地扭动下。 因此，朱自清与孩子的关系由他对孩子的支配地位决定。 他在这一段的开头说，他想和孩子们亲密，但这种亲密是权力强迫所致。（朱自清的恋童癖在他的其他作品中得到了有力的证实。 除了在著名的《背影》等作品中对童年的关注外，在他的另一篇散文《孩子们》中，甚至明确承认对儿童有进行身体上的虐待。）<br />
<br />
鉴于这些奇怪的承认，人们认为朱自清凝视白人孩子时的反应要复杂得多。 朱先生将这种凝视视为种族主义，这或许正确的；然而，他显然也对所涉及的权力倒置感到震惊。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
He normally enjoys the prerogative of a forced intimacy, dominating children through his gaze, and suddenly he finds, for the first time, a child that fights gaze with gaze, is able to dominate him and usurp Zhu's position as an adult, casting him down into the docility of the helpless child. When Zhu, flabbergasted, constructs a voice to put onto the child, he may be grabbing onto the real racism present in the situation to use as a defense mechanism, changing the subject to avoid the real source of the ego-crushing which is occurring. Zhu protests his amazement that he could be so disturbed by “just a ten year old white 'child'”; yet the entire scenario could never possibly have been played out with an adult.<br />
<br />
Fanon's child is a mirror to him, highlighting the Lacanian crisis of identification which life in France causes him.<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过他的目光支配孩子，突然，他发现，第一次有孩子和他对着凝视，这凝视能控制着他，篡夺朱作为一个成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制，改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有一个十岁的白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起进行。法农的孩子如同一面镜子，突出了他在法国的生活所造成的拉康认同危机。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过眼色来支配孩子，他突然发现，第一次有孩子用眼神与他对视，篡夺了朱作为成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制、改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有十岁的一个白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起。对他来说，法农的孩子如同一面镜子，暴露出法国生活中拉康认同危机对他的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
If we in turn take Fanon as a mirror for Zhu Ziqing, his Lacanian analysis throws up interesting images of the incident on the Shanghai trolley. Zhu's white boy is visually even more of a mirror image to him than Fanon's was. The man and the boy gaze at each other across the solid divide; they mutually stare along a joint axis of domination. Of course, Zhu does not have Fanon's psychoanalytic training: he had read some empiricist psychology, but less Freud and of course no Lacan. He cannot wander between psychological theory and personal experience in the same fashion Fanon did.<br />
如果我们反过来以法农为朱自清的镜子，他对拉卡尼亚主义的分析在上海电车上抛出有趣的事件图像。 在视觉上，朱自清的白人男孩比法农的更像是他的镜像。 男人和男孩在坚固的鸿沟上凝视着对方。 他们沿着共同的支配轴相互凝视。 当然，朱没有接受法农的心理分析训练：他读过一些经验主义者的心理学，但是很少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉康。 他无法像法农那样在心理理论和个人经历之间徘徊。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们反过来把法农当作朱自清的镜子，他的拉卡尼亚主义分析就会对上海电车事件抛出有趣的图像。 朱自清的白人男孩在视觉上甚至比法农的男孩更像他的镜像。 男人和男孩隔着坚实的鸿沟相互凝视，他们沿着共同的统治轴线相互凝视。 当然，朱德没有法农的精神分析训练：他读过一些经验主义心理学，但少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉卡尼亚。 他不能像法农那样在心理学理论和个人经验之间游走。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But a reading of Fanon forces us to ask to what extent Zhu's trauma is a crisis of delayed issues of developmental psychology. This is obviously a complex field which belongs properly to specialists, and one hardly feels there is enough material in this brief essay to make definitive conclusions.<br />
但是对法农的阅读迫使我们问朱自清的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学迟缓问题的危机。 显然，这是一个复杂的领域，应该属于专家，并且几乎没有人认为这篇简短的文章中有足够的材料来得出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但对法农的解读，迫使我们要问，朱的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学的延迟问题的危机。 这显然是一个复杂的领域，理应属于专家的范畴，在这篇简短的文章中，我们很难感觉到有足够的材料来做出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不过，读了法农的书，我们不禁要问，朱自清的创伤究竟在多大程度上是发展心理学延迟问题的危机。这显然是一个完全属于专家研究的复杂领域。人们觉得，这篇简短的文章中没有足够的材料来让他们作出明确的结论。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:53, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
But the narrative is explicitly spun out of a story of childhood; Zhu himself derives his child-fetish from the loss of the intimate and passive Liu Jun. And Zhu's fascination with children and childhood in other essays should be an indication that something is up. Perhaps one could establish Zhu's relation to Fanon thus: that while Fanon's experience of racism is drawn into a network of theory that links his crisis of identity to an aborted mirror-stage, Zhu Ziqing sees in the mirror of his own white child a vision of himself as prematurely woven into the fabric of power. It is then only this sudden emergence of power in a half-nostalgic, half-sexual scopophilia which highlights the boy's whiteness and raises the questions of racial dominance and nationalist resistance.<br />
<br />
What makes Zhu feel nationalistic pride? It is not the boy's reaction, but his race.<br />
<br />
但故事是明确地从一个童年故事中衍生出来的;朱自清的儿童迷恋源于失去了亲密而消极的刘君。而朱自清在其他文章中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是表明有些事情发生了。也许可以建立朱自清与法农之间的关系:法农种族主义的经历卷入了理论之网，这将他的身份危机与流产镜像阶段连接起来, 朱自清从自己的白人孩子的镜子里看到了自己过早地融入权力的一面。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这部小说的叙事显然是从一个童年故事中衍生出来的；朱自清本人从失去亲密无间、被动的刘俊身上获得了对儿童的迷恋，而他在其他散文中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是某种事情发生的迹象。也许有人可以这样确定朱自清与法农的关系：虽然法农的种族主义经历被纳入了一个理论网络，将他的身份危机与一个失败的镜像阶段联系起来，但朱自清在自己的白人孩子的镜子中看到了自己过早地编织在权力结构中的形象。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:19, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Given the way Zhu sets up his narrative, given the description of his frequent and unimpeded voyeurism of children in public spaces, one assumes that any child who stared back mockingly at Zhu would have shocked him-this child was the first to do so. Had the child been Chinese and stared back, Zhu's experience might have been more obviously psycho-sexual in his own recounting. The real importance of the child's whiteness is to Zhu's rational reflections over the significance of the incident. To Zhu's mind, it was not the child's whiteness but his resistance that was disturbing; but he locates the whiteness as the source of the child's ability to resist and to then turn resistance into domination. He essentializes the incident: force is what makes whites white. A gaze on a bus becomes an allegory for the sweep of modern history.<br />
<br />
考虑到朱的叙述方式，鉴于他在公共场所频繁而畅通无阻地窥视儿童的描述，人们认为，任何一个嘲笑朱的孩子都会震惊他——这个孩子是第一个这样做的。如果这个孩子是中国人并且回头看，朱的经历可能在他自己的叙述中更明显地是心理性的。孩子白皙的真正重要性在于朱对事件意义的理性反思。在朱看来，让人不安的不是孩子的白皙，而是他的反抗；但他把白种人定位为孩子反抗能力的源泉，然后将反抗转化为支配。他将这一事件本质化：武力使白人变白。凝视一辆公共汽车就成了横扫现代历史的寓言。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 03:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
On reflection, the appearance of nationalism here is far more abrupt than it would have seemed in the Shanghai journal culture following the May 30 Massacre. Is it really a defense mechanism against the revelations of his own psychology? Is it both a defense mechanism and an expression of conscious and justified outrage over colonialist presence in Shanghai? Is it a fiction “remembered” back onto the incident in the heat of the violent summer of 1925? I do not mean by any of these questions to imply that somehow Zhu's nationalism is fake, or secondary, or subordinate; to do that would be to write a justification of the murder of the students on Nanjing Road. But of all the essays and poems and short fiction published along with Zhu's essay in the two Literary Association journals (''Xiaoshuo yuebao and Wenxue zhoukan''), none but his strays so far from the event of the massacre itself in order to support the national cause. It is legitimate to ask why.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The bifurcations in Zhu's essay between experience and historiography, practice and theory thus are constituted in an odd mix of clarity and confusion. Patriotic messages are deeply worked into the fabric of the narration of the incident, and any division between Zhu's lived experience and the big picture view of imperialism were surely invisible to any reader in the context of the essay's production. They are invisible to us, as informed readers, but only on our first readings. The deeper explorations of Zhu's gaze, by suggesting the possible distance of ideological historiography form the original event, merely highlight a structural division between narration and theory which splits the text at “I was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” The structural split is perfectly obvious; yet it is only after some thought about the nature of Zhu's project that it becomes noteworthy.<br />
<br />
因此，朱的文章中经验与史学，实践和理论之间的分歧是由清晰和混乱构成的。爱国主义的启示被深深地融入了事件的叙述之中，在这篇论文的撰写过程中，任何读者都肯定看不到朱的活生生的经验与帝国主义的大视野之间的任何分歧。作为知情的读者，它们对我们是不可见的，但仅在我们的初读时才可见。 通过暗示思想史学与原事件之间可能的距离，朱目光的更深层次的探索仅仅强调了叙事和理论之间的结构性划分，使文本分裂为“我充满了紧迫的民族主义情绪！”其中结构上的分裂非常明显； 然而，只有在对朱的项目的性质进行一些思考之后，它才值得关注。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:16, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
This is the Zhu Ziqing who declares himself a contradiction, and he can talk back to Fanon. His own textual complexes find their affinities in Fanon's text and the Fanonian textual systems that grew from it. It is impossible to forget, with Fanon, the wiles of language-his flourishes are too extravagant. Yet ''Black Skin, White Masks'' is filled with partial autobiographies. One knows one is reading theory, but it seems to be a theory grown organically from “Antillean experience,” even when we all know better. Though our study of Chinese literature might convince us that theory fits or does not fit Chinese experience, we should not assume that theory has a more natural and wholesome relationship with African or Indian experience, that the postcolonial debates were “derived” from fully colonial experience. Psychoanalytic theory created Fanon's experience, and the body of theory “derived” from Fanon has even more dramatically recreated him.<br />
<br />
这就是那个宣称自己自我矛盾的朱自清，他可以对法农进行反驳。他自身的文本情结在法农的文本和由其发展而来的法农文本体系中找到了相似之处。人们不可能忘记法农的语言诡计——他的华丽辞藻太过夸张。然而《黑皮肤，白面具》的一些部分充满了自传性质。一个人知道自己在阅读理论，甚至当我们更了解这理论时，但这理论似乎是一个有机地从“安的列斯经验”中成长起来的，虽然我们对中国文学的研究可能会让我们相信，理论是否符合中国的经验，但我们不应该假设理论与非洲或印度的经验有更自然和健康的关系，后殖民争论是“派生”自完全的殖民经验。精神分析理论创造了法农的经验，而从法农“衍生”出来的理论体则更戏剧性地重新塑造了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The point of which is not to reassert the very tired discovery that theory is not experience and words not things, but to point out that the Chinese modernist friction against theory is not unique. Insofar as we need to continue to talk about postcolonial contexts when addressing Chinese modern literature, it would be helpful to keep in perspective Chinese's non-uniqueness; to do so may help us avoid the trap of either-or questions. Tension is healthy. If we must dismiss with a wave our continuing urgent desire for comparison of unmediated experience, and cannot give ourselves over to the mere nodding affirmation of sloganized thought-systems, then at least the comparative and cross-cultural analysis of tension is still available to us.<br />
<br />
The great frustration of the work of comparison is its inability to aspire to totalisms. However conscious we are of the danger of such aspirations, they are magnetic and insinuating.<br />
<br />
这里的重点并不是要重申这个老生常谈的发现，即理论不是经验，文字也不是事物，而是要指出中国现代主义与理论的摩擦并不是唯一的。在探讨中国现代文学时，如果我们需要继续探讨后殖民语境，那么审视中国的非独特性是有帮助的。这样做可以帮助我们避免陷入非此即彼的困境。对立是有益的的。如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散我们对未经调解的经验的比较的持续的迫切愿望，不能让我们自己沉溺于仅仅是表面肯定的口号的思想体系，那么至少对立比较和跨文化的分析对我们仍然是可用的。<br />
<br />
比较研究的不足在于它不能实现极权主义。虽然我们十分清楚这种想法的危险性，但还是会被吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 07:00, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The leap from text to context is satisfying; even if one is aware of the necessity of multiple contexts, because one can choose one's school and plant one's feet and make an argument (or ignore the need for argument) that one's chosen context is the most appropriate. The comparison of individual works requires resignation to pettiness. Any other permutation of works will produce different, perhaps contradictory, lessons. For example, comparing Zhu's essay with other May 30 protest essays, such as those by Mao Dun or Zheng Zhenduo, would vastly alter our evaluation of it. Among an infinite number of permutations of comparison, the importance of any one comparison becomes infinitesimal, and its authority to define the reception of the work shrinks commensurably. The infinitesimal still has the potential for informing other research, but only by miracles of typological allegory.<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃是令人满意的，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃令人满意，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:22, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture<br />
'''<br />
Charles A. Laughlin<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''' <br />
<br />
The popularity of both Republican period and post-Mao sanwen in contemporary Chinese literary markets indicates the importance of this genre in twentieth century Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Less obvious, but no less significant, is its importance within the socialist cultural system of the Chinese Communist Party. Ever since Chinese cultural activists began to consciously promote specific literary practices as a way of contributing to “revolution” in the late 1920s, literary prose played an important role, but at first only in the form of reportage or baogao wenxue. Beginning in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan, however, young writers who received all or in part of their education or literary training in Communist institutions began to write prose texts that more closely resembled the xiaopin and suigan of the Republican period. Unlike reportage, these texts featured lyrical and humorous moments without being critical of the social environment, and they were not concerned with contemporary historical events and figures.<br />
<br />
矛盾的抒情主义：中国社会主义文化中的刘白玉，杨硕和三文。<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
<br />
民国时期和“后毛”时期三文在中国当代文学界的流行，表明了这一体裁在二十世纪中国文学中的重要性。<br />
<br />
在中国共产党的社会主义文化体系中，它的重要性并不是那么明显，但是同样重要。自从中国文化活动家在1920年代末开始有意识地推广特定的文学实践作为促进“革命”的一种方式以来，文学散文就发挥了重要的作用，但起初只是以报告文学或报刊文学的形式出现。然而，从抗日战争时期在延安开始，到共产党机构接受全部或部分教育或文学训练的年轻作家开始写散文，其文字更类似于共和时期的小品和随感。与报告文学不同，这些文本具有抒情和幽默的同时，并没有涉及到批评社会环境，也与当代历史事件和人物无关。<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Such writing achieved prominence in the first decade of the People’s Republic of China, and in this paper I examine three writers that exemplify the characteristic techniques and strategies of the socialist literary essay: Liu Baiyu, Qin Mu and Yang Shuo. Liu Baiyu exemplifies how the experience of war and revolution conditioned the emergence of lyricism in socialist culture, while Qin Mu and Yang Shuo embody the maturation of this socialist lyricism in a peacetime environment. Socialist ''sanwen'' differs from Republican period forms in its characteristically friendly yet didactic second-person rhetoric, and its tendency to build verbal monuments for national heroes. But traces of the conspicuous individuality of Republican period ''sanwen'' lived on in the essayists of the 1950s and 60s. This created a subtle dissonance in the texture of socialist culture that in my opinion contributed to the prominence and popularity of these writers, whose works were included in textbooks for later generations of mainland readers.<br />
<br />
这样的写作在中华人民共和国成立的第一个十年取得非常突出成就，在本文中，我研究了三位作家，他们是采用社会主义文学论文典型技巧和策略的典范：刘百羽，秦牧和杨硕。刘百羽举例说明了战争和革命是如何限制抒情主义在社会主义文化体现的，而秦牧和杨硕则代表了这种社会主义抒情主义在和平时期的成熟。社会主义的“散文”与共和党时期的形式不同，在于其特征性的友好而有说服力的第二人称修辞，以及为民族英雄树立口碑的趋势。但是，在1950年代和60年代的散文家中，存在着共和时期“散文”个性明显的痕迹。这在社会主义文化的结构中产生了微妙的不和谐，但在我看来，这促进了这些作家的知名度和受欢迎程度，这些作家的作品被纳入了后代大陆读者的教科书中。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
When we think of the Chinese essay we usually think of the works of Republican period liberal humanists drawing upon both Western ideas and premodern Chinese style and diction to produce a new genre that represented the artistic epitome of lyrical, colloquial prose. Perhaps just as commonly, when we think of revolutionary literature and of writing under the Chinese communist regime, we think of realism, social critique, polemic and propaganda. Indeed in my study of the development of reportage literature in the Republican and early PRC periods, I associate the procedures of reportage with the culture of leftism in such a way as to render the very notion of lyrical leftist nonfiction discordant if not outright absurd. The problem is, as I was aware at the time, there are prominent authors in the PRC – Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu, to name only a few – who made their names almost entirely through the writing of essays (sanwen). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
At that time, I dismissed this phenomenon in the usual way: these were communist lackeys simply parroting the ruling ideology at the bidding of culture czars.<br />
<br />
But even if they were, I could not account for the fact that such writing took on the form of sanwen, in many ways similar to the ''xiaopin wen'' popular the 1930s, while there was already in ''baogao wenxue'' a thriving literary nonfiction form that seemed to embody in its very form the communist vision of art and its place in society. To put it another way, there is nothing in the logic of socialist culture as I knew it that would call for the production of ''sanwen'' as written by these authors, and we know very well that authors under socialism are not at liberty to write what they please, so I had to attribute the persistence of the ''sanwen'' form in the PRC to something inherent about ''sanwen'' and Chinese literary modernity.<br />
<br />
当时，我用普通的方式排斥这种现象: 这些共产主义走狗只是在文化沙皇的命令下模仿执政意识形态。<br />
<br />
但是即使是这样，我也无法解释这样一个事实，即这种写作采取了散文的形式。在许多方面都类似于1930年代流行的小品文，而在报告文学中已经有了一种蓬勃发展的文学非小说形式， 共产主义艺术的形式及其在社会中的地位体现出来。 换句话说，在我所知道的社会主义文化的逻辑中，没有任何东西像这些作家所写的那样需要散文的产生,而且我们很清楚，在社会主义制度下的作家没有写他们所喜欢事物的自由。 因此，我不得不把中国散文形式的持续存在归因于散文与中国文学现代性的某种内在联系。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 11:57, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
My current project intends to approach this question by comparing Chinese literary nonfiction practice in a number of different historical and cultural scenarios from the late imperial period to the present, and this presentation concerns specifically the ''sanwen'' under Chinese socialism.<br />
<br />
'''Socialist ''sanwen'' emerged from Communist base area writing practice''' <br />
<br />
Usually in the form of reportage, literary prose of the Yan’an period was concerned with dramatizing the social and spiritual superiority of regimented, collectivized life under the leadership of the Communist Party. Such writing often relied on direct comparisons between aspects of life in ”the old society” and life in Yan’an, or the between checkered past of characters who had been rehabilitated by the Communists and their newfound belief in the socialist community and its leaders. Though often idealized, examples given are meant to be concrete and taken as factual, and names are often named of military leaders and model laborers depicted. In this respect reportage is the most direct precursor of the lyrical essays of the People’s Republic.[ The civil war of 1946-1949 so disrupted the socialist base areas that much less of this kind of writing was produced; war correspondence once again became the order of the day]<br />
<br />
<br />
我打算对从古至今不同历史文化背景下的非虚构的中国文学作品进行比较，通过这些比较来理清这一问题，而这一介绍着重关注中国社会主义下的散文。<br />
<br />
'''社会主义散文是从共产主义根据地写作实践中产生的'''<br />
<br />
延安时期的散文通常以报告文学的形式，注重对共产党领导下的制度化、集体化生活的社会和精神优越性的戏剧化描写。这类写作往往依赖于对“旧社会”生活与延安生活的直接比较，或者是对被共产党改造的人物过去的坎坷经历与他们对社会主义社会及其领导人的新信仰的直接比较。虽然常常是理想化的，但所举的例子都要具体和真实，人物经常以军队领导人和劳动模范的名字命名。在这方面，报告文学是《人民共和国》抒情散文的最直接的前身[1946-1949年的内战扰乱了社会主义根据地，这类文章的产出因此少了许多，战地书信又成了日常的工作]。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=107620History of Translation Studies 72020-12-06T06:00:24Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Final Exam Papers Part 1]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Final Exam Papers Part 2]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Final Exam Papers Part 3]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Final Exam Papers Part 4]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Final Exam Papers Part 5]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Final Exam Papers Part 6]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Final Exam Papers Part 7]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Final Exam Papers Part 8]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Final Exam Papers Part 9]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Final Exam Papers Part 10]<br />
<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu==<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
In the context of economic and social globalization, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on local national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain the cultural characteristics of the source language to the greatest extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the limitations of foreignizing translation and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本文章从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的局限性以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
异化翻译：民族文化<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for the translated text will be more easily accepted by the target language readers. Although this may attract more target language readers, in the translation process of "domestication", we allow the source language culture to adapt to the target language culture, and even replace the source language culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality of cultural production and transformation is concerned, this is likely to cause the development of the homogeneity of the cultures of various ethnic groups, and this does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization, and is not conducive to maintaining the cultural uniqueness of various ethnic groups. A typical domesticated translation in Chinese-English translation is David Hawkes's translation of "red" in ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''. Considering the different understanding of red in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". Although this translation is conducive to the understanding of western readers, it also loses the cultural connotation of Chinese red. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With such kind of domesticating translation, western readers can never really understand the real Chinese culture. Compared with domesticated translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.<br />
<br />
==='''2.The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
The concept of foreignization translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St.Jerome in ancient Rome, which is the embryonic form of literal translation. The most famous translator in the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, had a rich view of literal translation as (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content, neither can be achieved. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments. During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation method. In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation method is for the translator to follow the original author's meaning ; if possible, follow his words closely, and finally reproduce his character as much as possible. Charles Batteux believes that the first translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible.<br />
<br />
From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained at the level of language meaning, content and formal style. The development in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology has gradually extended and developed literal translation, which is the basis of Western foreignizing translation ideas.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher put forward two very different translation methods in his famous speech entitled "On Different Translation Methods": the translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader as much as possible stay still and make the original author approach the reader. He advocated that the first translation method, the foreignizing translation method, is the real translation method, allowing readers to appreciate foreign customs and respecting language and cultural differences.<br />
<br />
Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves in themselves, so language itself is translation. Benjamin emphasized the directness of language and intended to subvert the bourgeois instrumental language view. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation method, retaining the language form of the original text, that is, the difference in the way of meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation method is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. It is to achieve the ultimate goal of pure language human salvation.<br />
<br />
Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book "The Test of Difference" in response to the traditional translation thought centered on "the transmission of meaning" that has long dominated the western translation world. The translation ethics advocated by Berman is to respect the original work and respect the language and cultural differences in the original work. To this end, he advocates foreignizing translation, implements foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, enriches himself through the introduction of "others", in order to achieve his goal of translation ethics.<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, the concept and terminology of "foreignizing translation" have not been promoted to the agenda of translation studies until 1995, when Lawrence Venuti published his famous book "The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation". Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology. Its rich connotations can be summarized in the following five points: differences in material selection, language Differences with culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the target language culture, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti’s translation ethics emphasizes the absorption and acceptance of the “other” as the “other”. On the one hand, it respects the language and cultural differences of the foreign other, and on the other hand, it can be used to challenge the culture of the target language. Mainstream values<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation '''===<br />
Translation circles have different definitions of foreignizing translation, but generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that preserves the characteristics of the source language, which will help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’ perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.<br />
<br />
===='''3.1.The Need of Language Development'''====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges among countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation played a very important role in this process. The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary did not exist in the target country, but through the translator's foreignizing translation, a large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people. And it can be widely disseminated and used in popular culture. For example: "honeymoon" (蜜月), this word had no corresponding expression in Chinese at the time, and its meaning (the first month of the wedding) did not exist in Chinese at that time. It was Lin Shu's method of alienation. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. There are also many other words, such as "咖啡（coffee）", "丁克（DINK）", and "可乐（cola）", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi(饺子）", "tofu（豆腐）", "Kungfu（功夫）" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. Once these foreign words are accepted by the society，they are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language alienation. The alienation of language is the general trend, and it cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing method actually follows the universal law of language development.<br />
<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation is not limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level (Wang Kefei, 2002:458). When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he discussed a dozen of foriegnizing translation of syntaxes. Facts have proved that the foreignized syntax of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the Chinese vernacular. Modern Chinese is also influenced by Western languages, and the frequency and scope of passive voice use have expanded. Passive form was used as early as in ancient Chinese, but it is rare, and it is generally used to express misfortune or unpleasant experience. Affected by the translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant things. It means that the syntax of source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language.<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the use of foreignization translation method can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some vocabulary and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this kind of thinking, they showed great importance to the language form of the original text.<br />
<br />
In China, Mr. Lu Xun has always advocated foreignization translation for the purpose of importing new expressions to develop vernacular Chinese. "Chinese are too imprecise...To solve this problem, I thought I had to endure a little bitterness one after another and put in strange, ancient, foreign syntax. Then we could take it as ourselves." (Chen Fukang, 1992:298). In the fifteen or sixteen years after the May Fourth Movement, many writers and translators consciously adopted the foreignization translation method under the advocacy of Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai and others. Their works not only absorbed a large number of Western vocabulary, but also used some syntactic structures of Western languages, which gradually overcomed the lack of vocabulary and thin sentence structure of ancient Chinese, and promoted the final development and maturity of the vernacular.<br />
<br />
===='''3.2.The Need of Culture Communication'''====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which all have contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depends more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and new expressions. The French philosopher Derrida believes that "translation is to play with similarities and differences in endless analysis." Through translation, we can achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.<br />
<br />
In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential source language culture. Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors and behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. For this kind of proverb, if you blindly adopt the domestication translation method, translate "God help those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but sure" as "天网恢恢 疏而不漏". Then, for most Chinese readers, they may never understand the true religious culture of the West.<br />
<br />
Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices. This is the only way to multiculturalism. When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. But the cultural connotation of pudding for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of pudding in the translation. Another example is the proverb "Unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖，不友善" by using domesticating translation method, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the original culture. Therefore, using foreignizing translation method, "不亲吻，不友善" can make readers understand the difference between Western etiquette and Chinese, and will not cause obstacles in cultural exchanges.<br />
<br />
==='''The Limitations of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Influence of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Work Cited'''===<br />
<br />
== Analysis on the Key problems in Chinese-English Translation and Corresponding Solutions ----- Based on Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation 姜好 Jiang Hao==<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing==<br />
<br />
===解释学视角下''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''译本的对比研究===<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary <br />
translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic <br />
theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and <br />
fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and <br />
translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. Then the author and translator <br />
of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words: Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history===<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密<br />
切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫<br />
人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对<br />
译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。通过以上分析，笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的<br />
时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词：解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s. In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers. The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of <br />
different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into <br />
hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic <br />
philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works. These three <br />
principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In <br />
view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics==== <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, the <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics（郑立平，易新奇，2015：101-104）.<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must <br />
explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language <br />
understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. With the continuous secularization <br />
of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of <br />
literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were <br />
deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they are called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics as a dual task of theory and practice lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom” (洪汉鼎，2010:459).And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he believed that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that stood before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but should be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile. <br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons. The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text（章启群，2002:77）. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical roots of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers. <br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission in translating this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. Translator Lin Shu ’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation（陈宏薇，2004：24）. Therefore, in the following chapter, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from a Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese. Then they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. “Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe, 2011:3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(林纾&魏易，1981：4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（黄继忠，1993:3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong. The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts.<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. (谢天振，2000：204) "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ".<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:<br />
<br />
2. “I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)<br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br />
<br />
This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” (Gadamer H, 1999:250) Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.<br />
<br />
3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe, 2011:132)<br />
<br />
林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(林纾&魏易，1981：45)<br />
<br />
黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（黄继忠，1993:94）<br />
<br />
When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.<br />
During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary work in the same era, and different versions of the same literary work will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
<br />
4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br />
<br />
林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)<br />
<br />
黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br />
<br />
In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.<br />
<br />
According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.” ( 柳晓辉, 2010: 125 )Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text. However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities.<br />
<br />
5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe, 2011: 2)<br />
<br />
林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(林纾&魏易，1981：3)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（黄继忠，1993:1）<br />
<br />
This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel. This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
<br />
British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society".(Hebding&Glick,1992：37) Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，the translator must bring the characteristics of his own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translator's language and culture are different from the original author's culture.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
<br />
A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating this religious content, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:<br />
<br />
6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe, 2011: 95)<br />
<br />
林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (林纾&魏易，1981：34)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（黄继忠，1993:72）<br />
<br />
In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.<br />
<br />
This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.<br />
<br />
7.There were others，which made incessant mention of “Jordan’s bank”,and “Canaan’s field”, and the “New Jerusalem”. (Stowe, 2011: 46)<br />
In the above example, there are many religious words, such as "Jordan ’s bank", "Canaan ’s field", and "New Jerusalem". Lin Shu chose to omit them, while Huang Jizhong chose to translate them literally, translating them into “约旦河岸”、“迦南战场”and“新耶路撒冷”. These words are all from Bible and contain a wealth of referential meanings. The development of Christianity in China in the two eras was different, which was the key reason for the difference in translation between the two translators. Lin Shu's translation version is related to his era, and is closely connected with his own translation purpose. The different translation versions of the two translators are in line with their own horizons and knowledge structure, and they can also meet the readers' expectations. The different treatment methods for the religious content appearing in the original text fully reflect the translator's subjectivity and creativity. Both translators have contributed wonderful translation versions to readers of different eras.<br />
<br />
From a perspective fusion perspective, Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture. (朱健平，2006:69-74)The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
<br />
Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
<br />
8. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe, 2011:73）<br />
<br />
林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（林纾&魏易，1981：25）<br />
<br />
黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（黄继忠，1993：49）<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.<br />
<br />
In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of understanding. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.<br />
<br />
9. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe, 2011:215）<br />
<br />
林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(林纾&魏易，1981:75)<br />
<br />
黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（黄继忠，1993：143）<br />
<br />
A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture（李磊，2008）.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking. (邹广胜，2001，（4）：2) . Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works. 2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method[M]. Beijing: Peking University Press, 1999:250.<br />
<br />
Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. Introduction to Sociology: A Text with Reading[M]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992:37.<br />
<br />
Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin[M]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd, 2011:2、3、44、46、73、95、132、215.<br />
<br />
Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:56.<br />
<br />
陈宏薇.新编汉英翻译教程[Z].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2004:24.<br />
<br />
洪汉鼎.诠释学：真理与方法[M].北京：商务印书馆, 2010:459.<br />
<br />
黄继忠.汤姆大伯的小屋[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 1993:1、3、30、49、72、94、143.<br />
<br />
李磊.从伽达默尔哲学阐释学看Uncle Tom’s Cabin 的两个中译本[D].上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2008.<br />
<br />
林纾,魏易.黑奴吁天录[M].北京:商务印书馆, 1981:3、4、14、25、34、45、75.<br />
<br />
柳晓辉.译者主体性的语言哲学反思[J].外语学刊, 2010，（1）：122-125.<br />
<br />
谢天振.翻译的理论建构与文化透视[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000:204.<br />
<br />
邹广胜.读者的主体性与文本的主体性[J].外国文学研究, 2001,（4）：1-7.<br />
<br />
朱健平.翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观[J].解放军外国语学院报, 2006,（2）：69-74.<br />
<br />
郑立平,易新奇.翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释[J].外语学刊, 2015,（04）:101-104.<br />
<br />
章启群.意义的本体论----哲学阐释学[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 2002:77.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<br />
==On Subtitle Translation of Why Women Kill from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translationTranslation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng==<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation 刘艺 Liu Yi==<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue==<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies 马娟 Ma Juan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies;<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Influences of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Coping Strategies of The Influence'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''=== <br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn 吴琪 Wu Qi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Polysystem theory, Cultural turn, Translation studies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''=== <br />
多元系统理论，文化转向，翻译研究<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
==='''2. Development of polysystem theory'''===<br />
2. 1 Research Background<br />
<br />
2. 1. 1 Historical Background<br />
<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II. and there are almost no native cultures and literary works. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works. <br />
<br />
2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources<br />
<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar.<br />
<br />
2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered<br />
<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of mechanical rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation.<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply. <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a more perfect research idea for cultural studies. The International Association for comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(张素文, 2019). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely broke the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on. Thanks to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages(曾文雄, 2006). Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies. <br />
<br />
2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory<br />
<br />
2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar<br />
<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, what is the definition of Polysystem systems? Zohar generalized it as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge. Second, what does the polysystem theory refer to? It points out that in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus forms a dynamic translation study. Third, how are the levels in the Polysystem system classified? Zohar locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and classifies them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from.<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
①. When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country.<br />
<br />
②. When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation.<br />
<br />
③. When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems. Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, in most cases, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language as much as possible, so that the source language culture can be integrated into the target language culture and the target language readers can accept it more easily, which creates contradictions, because, by introducing excellent works from other regions into the target language, It should be aimed at absorbing the high-quality culture of other countries, but if all the cultural features, new ideas, and expressions of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state. in such a system.<br />
<br />
2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury<br />
<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized and authoritative theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation between the two texts, and then the translation is constantly improved and perfected. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality; Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which is part of Toury's description translation theory. Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted and used by translators in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents. It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on.<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman put forward new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(吴际, 2018). <br />
<br />
2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy<br />
<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in The Translator's Invisibility. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text, and brings readers into foreign contexts. In other words, foreignization translation requires the translator to be close to the source text and adopt the expressions to convey the original content. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context. The differences between them are obvious and cannot be confused.<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color.<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity.<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(斯托, 林纾, & 魏易, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s.Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the pluralistic system of Chinese literature. Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at this time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced A Midsummer Night’s Dream, translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem.<br />
<br />
According to the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu should adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy should accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating A Midsummer Night's Dream, this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William). <br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊， 是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘,这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of "domestication." <br />
The above application gives us inspiration, that is, in specific translation activities, the cultural exchange between the source language and the target language is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity and choose appropriate translation strategies based on their knowledge and personal understanding. Not strictly abide by a certain theory, because translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation, and it is not rigid and static. In the process of translation, only combined with specific cultural context and personal understanding, can translators figure out the best translation strategies and methods. Only by combining scientific theory with translator's subjectivity can we accomplish every translation activity best.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Development of Cultural Turn'''===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and promote translation studies to become an independent discipline. Among them, Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline with its own characteristics under the active propaganda of the cultural approach, which has also become the basis of extensive research on cultural turn in translation studies. Bassnett also has a famous metaphor about culture and language, which also expresses her emphasis on culture. She points out that culture is compared to the human body, and language is the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Bassnett, 1995). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” was put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere inheriting Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon of "cultural turn" in translation. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of exploring translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context. Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target text, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text. At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors can influence it. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works. <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn, and the cultural turn has occurred in history. Xuan Huifang (轩慧芳, 2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school. At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. Only by learning the strengths of others can we surpass others. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to maintain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was very narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious.<br />
<br />
Only later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful and stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not direct translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time. However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology at all, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of works, like la Dame aux Camelias，Uncle Tom's cabin and David Copperfield, etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles of the original text, but to convey conducive information part of the original text to the target readers. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory.<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. During that period, the translation mainly focuses on how to transform Chinese traditional culture benefiting from western culture and make the Chinese nation rejuvenate. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to break the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. For example, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai, who are well known to us, are representative figures. However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that our own language form, Classical Chinese, should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity.<br />
<br />
==='''4. Judgement'''===<br />
<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
4. 1 Advantages<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic schools tend to pay too much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events. Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in a vacuum environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations. <br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". <br />
Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can understand the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. After fully understanding this phenomenon, it can also be used to guide us on how to better promote our own culture through translation, which is an unprecedented opportunity for translation studies. At the same time, according to Zohar's theory, we can also know that only with a higher level of research can we better convey our own culture and contribute to our translation studies. <br />
<br />
4. 2 Disadvantages<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, and the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem: which means that texts are chosen because they are consistent with the new methods of target literature, and also because of their possible innovative role in target literature. However, the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations.<br />
<br />
Although the linguistic school pays too much attention to the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of scientific theories to study translation by studying syntax and vocabulary, which has merits. However, the attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is to completely negate and abandon it. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's eyes are completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations.<br />
<br />
==='''5. Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for cultural elements in promoting translation studies. Up to now, polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities(韩雪, 2019). The findings reported here also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators. When the earth is like a "village", our cultural exchanges with other countries are getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also change their attitudes, think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
==='''6. References'''===<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. 社会科学家(05), 193-197. <br />
<br />
韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究. 福建茶叶, 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录: 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. 校园英语(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”. 延安大学学报(社会科学版), 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建. 文理导航(上旬)(03), 93+95.<br />
<br />
==The influence of cultural differences on translation methods 姚佳 Yao Jia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The long-term transmission of culture must depend on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become the cultural transmission between countries. There are some differences between Chinese and Western social values and ways of thinking. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are simply understood from the expression. In addition, different nationalities are often influenced by their own cultures in the process of historical development, which will also lead to mistakes in Chinese and English translation. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They began to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
<br />
===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
<br />
2.1 The Historical Background<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2 The Thinking Mode <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.3 The Social Customs<br />
<br />
===Influences of cultural differences on translation===<br />
<br />
3.1 Lexical gap <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2 Semantic conflict<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3 Use specific translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences<br />
<br />
===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
<br />
4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Work Cited===<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan==<br />
<br />
==Characteristics of Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong==<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
Abstract: As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics. Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
Key Words: TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
摘要：中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
关键词：旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
I. Introduction <br />
China is a large tourism country with rapid development of tourism industry. Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material(hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors.<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012:70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. <br />
Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
II. Literature Review <br />
<br />
III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences<br />
<br />
IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules <br />
<br />
V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
VI. Conclusion <br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong==<br />
<br />
摘 要：随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
关键词：功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
Abstract: With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Key Words: corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
==Functional Equivalence Theory and Functional Translation in Translation Studies 阳慧 Yang Hui==<br />
<br />
==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei==<br />
摘要：儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
<br />
Abstract: Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''Lion King'', the thesis makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
<br />
Key Words: Children's Psychological Characters, Children's Literature, Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=107615History of Translation Studies 72020-12-06T05:55:36Z<p>Peng Dan: /* A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Final Exam Papers Part 1]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Final Exam Papers Part 2]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Final Exam Papers Part 3]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Final Exam Papers Part 4]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Final Exam Papers Part 5]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Final Exam Papers Part 6]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Final Exam Papers Part 7]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Final Exam Papers Part 8]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Final Exam Papers Part 9]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Final Exam Papers Part 10]<br />
<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu==<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
In the context of economic and social globalization, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on local national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain the cultural characteristics of the source language to the greatest extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the limitations of foreignizing translation and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本文章从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的局限性以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
异化翻译：民族文化<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for the translated text will be more easily accepted by the target language readers. Although this may attract more target language readers, in the translation process of "domestication", we allow the source language culture to adapt to the target language culture, and even replace the source language culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality of cultural production and transformation is concerned, this is likely to cause the development of the homogeneity of the cultures of various ethnic groups, and this does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization, and is not conducive to maintaining the cultural uniqueness of various ethnic groups. A typical domesticated translation in Chinese-English translation is David Hawkes's translation of "red" in ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''. Considering the different understanding of red in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". Although this translation is conducive to the understanding of western readers, it also loses the cultural connotation of Chinese red. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With such kind of domesticating translation, western readers can never really understand the real Chinese culture. Compared with domesticated translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.<br />
<br />
==='''2.The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
The concept of foreignization translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St.Jerome in ancient Rome, which is the embryonic form of literal translation. The most famous translator in the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, had a rich view of literal translation as (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content, neither can be achieved. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments. During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation method. In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation method is for the translator to follow the original author's meaning ; if possible, follow his words closely, and finally reproduce his character as much as possible. Charles Batteux believes that the first translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible.<br />
<br />
From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained at the level of language meaning, content and formal style. The development in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology has gradually extended and developed literal translation, which is the basis of Western foreignizing translation ideas.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher put forward two very different translation methods in his famous speech entitled "On Different Translation Methods": the translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader as much as possible stay still and make the original author approach the reader. He advocated that the first translation method, the foreignizing translation method, is the real translation method, allowing readers to appreciate foreign customs and respecting language and cultural differences.<br />
<br />
Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves in themselves, so language itself is translation. Benjamin emphasized the directness of language and intended to subvert the bourgeois instrumental language view. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation method, retaining the language form of the original text, that is, the difference in the way of meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation method is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. It is to achieve the ultimate goal of pure language human salvation.<br />
<br />
Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book "The Test of Difference" in response to the traditional translation thought centered on "the transmission of meaning" that has long dominated the western translation world. The translation ethics advocated by Berman is to respect the original work and respect the language and cultural differences in the original work. To this end, he advocates foreignizing translation, implements foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, enriches himself through the introduction of "others", in order to achieve his goal of translation ethics.<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, the concept and terminology of "foreignizing translation" have not been promoted to the agenda of translation studies until 1995, when Lawrence Venuti published his famous book "The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation". Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology. Its rich connotations can be summarized in the following five points: differences in material selection, language Differences with culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the target language culture, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti’s translation ethics emphasizes the absorption and acceptance of the “other” as the “other”. On the one hand, it respects the language and cultural differences of the foreign other, and on the other hand, it can be used to challenge the culture of the target language. Mainstream values<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation '''===<br />
Translation circles have different definitions of foreignizing translation, but generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that preserves the characteristics of the source language, which will help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’ perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.<br />
<br />
===='''3.1.The Need of Language Development'''====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges among countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation played a very important role in this process. The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary did not exist in the target country, but through the translator's foreignizing translation, a large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people. And it can be widely disseminated and used in popular culture. For example: "honeymoon" (蜜月), this word had no corresponding expression in Chinese at the time, and its meaning (the first month of the wedding) did not exist in Chinese at that time. It was Lin Shu's method of alienation. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. There are also many other words, such as "咖啡（coffee）", "丁克（DINK）", and "可乐（cola）", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi(饺子）", "tofu（豆腐）", "Kungfu（功夫）" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. Once these foreign words are accepted by the society，they are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language alienation. The alienation of language is the general trend, and it cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing method actually follows the universal law of language development.<br />
<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation is not limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level (Wang Kefei, 2002:458). When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he discussed a dozen of foriegnizing translation of syntaxes. Facts have proved that the foreignized syntax of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the Chinese vernacular. Modern Chinese is also influenced by Western languages, and the frequency and scope of passive voice use have expanded. Passive form was used as early as in ancient Chinese, but it is rare, and it is generally used to express misfortune or unpleasant experience. Affected by the translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant things. It means that the syntax of source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language.<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the use of foreignization translation method can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some vocabulary and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this kind of thinking, they showed great importance to the language form of the original text.<br />
<br />
In China, Mr. Lu Xun has always advocated foreignization translation for the purpose of importing new expressions to develop vernacular Chinese. "Chinese are too imprecise...To solve this problem, I thought I had to endure a little bitterness one after another and put in strange, ancient, foreign syntax. Then we could take it as ourselves." (Chen Fukang, 1992:298). In the fifteen or sixteen years after the May Fourth Movement, many writers and translators consciously adopted the foreignization translation method under the advocacy of Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai and others. Their works not only absorbed a large number of Western vocabulary, but also used some syntactic structures of Western languages, which gradually overcomed the lack of vocabulary and thin sentence structure of ancient Chinese, and promoted the final development and maturity of the vernacular.<br />
<br />
===='''3.2.The Need of Culture Communication'''====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which all have contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depends more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and new expressions. The French philosopher Derrida believes that "translation is to play with similarities and differences in endless analysis." Through translation, we can achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.<br />
<br />
In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential source language culture. Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors and behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. For this kind of proverb, if you blindly adopt the domestication translation method, translate "God help those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but sure" as "天网恢恢 疏而不漏". Then, for most Chinese readers, they may never understand the true religious culture of the West.<br />
<br />
Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices. This is the only way to multiculturalism. When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. But the cultural connotation of pudding for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of pudding in the translation. Another example is the proverb "Unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖，不友善" by using domesticating translation method, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the original culture. Therefore, using foreignizing translation method, "不亲吻，不友善" can make readers understand the difference between Western etiquette and Chinese, and will not cause obstacles in cultural exchanges.<br />
<br />
==='''The Limitations of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Influence of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Work Cited'''===<br />
<br />
== Analysis on the Key problems in Chinese-English Translation and Corresponding Solutions ----- Based on Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation 姜好 Jiang Hao==<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing==<br />
<br />
===解释学视角下''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''译本的对比研究===<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary <br />
translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic <br />
theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and <br />
fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and <br />
translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. Then the author and translator <br />
of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words: Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history===<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密<br />
切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫<br />
人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对<br />
译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。通过以上分析，笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的<br />
时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词：解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s. In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers. The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of <br />
different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into <br />
hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic <br />
philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works. These three <br />
principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In <br />
view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics==== <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, the <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics（郑立平，易新奇，2015：101-104）.<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must <br />
explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language <br />
understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. With the continuous secularization <br />
of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of <br />
literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were <br />
deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they are called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics as a dual task of theory and practice lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom” (洪汉鼎，2010:459).And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he believed that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that stood before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but should be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile. <br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons. The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text（章启群，2002:77）. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical roots of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers. <br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission in translating this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. Translator Lin Shu ’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation（陈宏薇，2004：24）. Therefore, in the following chapter, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from a Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese. Then they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. “Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe, 2011:3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(林纾&魏易，1981：4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（黄继忠，1993:3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong. The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts.<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. (谢天振，2000：204) "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ".<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:<br />
<br />
2. “I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)<br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br />
<br />
This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” (Gadamer H, 1999:250) Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.<br />
<br />
3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe, 2011:132)<br />
<br />
林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(林纾&魏易，1981：45)<br />
<br />
黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（黄继忠，1993:94）<br />
<br />
When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.<br />
During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary work in the same era, and different versions of the same literary work will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
<br />
4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br />
<br />
林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)<br />
<br />
黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br />
<br />
In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.<br />
<br />
According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.” ( 柳晓辉, 2010: 125 )Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text. However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities.<br />
<br />
5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe, 2011: 2)<br />
<br />
林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(林纾&魏易，1981：3)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（黄继忠，1993:1）<br />
<br />
This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel. This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
<br />
British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society".(Hebding&Glick,1992：37) Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，the translator must bring the characteristics of his own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translator's language and culture are different from the original author's culture.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
<br />
A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating this religious content, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:<br />
<br />
6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe, 2011: 95)<br />
<br />
林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (林纾&魏易，1981：34)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（黄继忠，1993:72）<br />
<br />
In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.<br />
<br />
This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.<br />
<br />
7.There were others，which made incessant mention of “Jordan’s bank”,and “Canaan’s field”, and the “New Jerusalem”. (Stowe, 2011: 46)<br />
In the above example, there are many religious words, such as "Jordan ’s bank", "Canaan ’s field", and "New Jerusalem". Lin Shu chose to omit them, while Huang Jizhong chose to translate them literally, translating them into “约旦河岸”、“迦南战场”and“新耶路撒冷”. These words are all from Bible and contain a wealth of referential meanings. The development of Christianity in China in the two eras was different, which was the key reason for the difference in translation between the two translators. Lin Shu's translation version is related to his era, and is closely connected with his own translation purpose. The different translation versions of the two translators are in line with their own horizons and knowledge structure, and they can also meet the readers' expectations. The different treatment methods for the religious content appearing in the original text fully reflect the translator's subjectivity and creativity. Both translators have contributed wonderful translation versions to readers of different eras.<br />
<br />
From a perspective fusion perspective, Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture. (朱健平，2006:69-74)The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
<br />
Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
<br />
8. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe, 2011:73）<br />
<br />
林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（林纾&魏易，1981：25）<br />
<br />
黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（黄继忠，1993：49）<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.<br />
<br />
In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of understanding. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.<br />
<br />
9. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe, 2011:215）<br />
<br />
林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(林纾&魏易，1981:75)<br />
<br />
黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（黄继忠，1993：143）<br />
<br />
A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture（李磊，2008）.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking. (邹广胜，2001，（4）：2) . Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works. 2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method[M]. Beijing: Peking University Press, 1999:250.<br />
<br />
Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. Introduction to Sociology: A Text with Reading[M]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992:37.<br />
<br />
Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin[M]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd, 2011:2、3、44、46、73、95、132、215.<br />
<br />
Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:56.<br />
<br />
陈宏薇.新编汉英翻译教程[Z].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2004:24.<br />
<br />
洪汉鼎.诠释学：真理与方法[M].北京：商务印书馆, 2010:459.<br />
<br />
黄继忠.汤姆大伯的小屋[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 1993:1、3、30、49、72、94、143.<br />
<br />
李磊.从伽达默尔哲学阐释学看Uncle Tom’s Cabin 的两个中译本[D].上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2008.<br />
<br />
林纾,魏易.黑奴吁天录[M].北京:商务印书馆, 1981:3、4、14、25、34、45、75.<br />
<br />
柳晓辉.译者主体性的语言哲学反思[J].外语学刊, 2010，（1）：122-125.<br />
<br />
谢天振.翻译的理论建构与文化透视[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000:204.<br />
<br />
邹广胜.读者的主体性与文本的主体性[J].外国文学研究, 2001,（4）：1-7.<br />
<br />
朱健平.翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观[J].解放军外国语学院报, 2006,（2）：69-74.<br />
<br />
郑立平,易新奇.翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释[J].外语学刊, 2015,（04）:101-104.<br />
<br />
章启群.意义的本体论----哲学阐释学[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 2002:77.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究<br />
<br />
摘 要<br />
<br />
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著，小说亦或者影视作品被译成若多版本供人们欣赏。如何完美的展现原著的风采成为众多译者头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达，提出了功能对等理论，着重实现不同文化，语言之间的沟通对等，并且侧重于读者的反映。本文通过功能对等理论对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏两人关于英国著名小说家毛姆的《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出，在小说翻译的过程中，译者如何实现单词，句子，语义和文化的对等以及如何实现读者的反映。再完美的东西总会有那么一点缺陷，有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等以及原著的文体。但是功能对等理论是源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并且其为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译的过程中忽略的形式对等，但是并不影响读者对原著的理解。本文更加侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，详细描写它如何实现意思的对等，形式的对等以及文化的对等。本文使用的方法有文献研究，对比研究，个案分析，经验总结以及内容总结等方法。最后我也会给出自己关于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。<br />
关键词：功能对等，沟通对等，读者反映 <br />
<br />
<br />
A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Moon and Sixpence from the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory<br />
<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
<br />
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focusing on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis through compares Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s two Chinese versions of The Moon and Sixpence, which written by England famous novelist Maugham, on perspective of the functional equivalence theory. Summing up that how to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantic during the translation and how to present the readers’ response. There are always some defects in any perfect things. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, and its achievements are obvious to translation and it makes great contribution for translation. In this paper, I will refer to the form equivalence in the process of translation which not affects the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes the translators how to realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. The paper’s researching ways include literature research, comparative research, example-analysis, summarize experience and content analysis. In the end, I will give my own opinion on the theory of functional equivalence and judge the version which I think is more suitable for readers.<br />
KEY WORDS: Functional Equivalence, Formal Equivalence, Reader’s Response<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
<br />
Research Background:<br />
Coincident with the development of the cultural globalization has been realization more and more foreign literary works are translated Chinese literary works for China domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which are translated frequently, we possibly feel that most works still have many regrets. On the one hand, if the translators only quest the corresponding words, this may limit the reader’s thought in a large aspect that the readers couldn’t deeply understand the emotion what the authors want to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue the semantic and thought, these probably not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator who has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language. Eugene Nida according to the nature of translation put forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information are conveyed by translation includes not only the surface information but also the deeper culture information.<br />
<br />
Literature Review:<br />
In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the “functional equivalence” to replace the “dynamic equivalence”.<br />
From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui’s “Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi’s “Applying Nida’s Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts”, published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.. <br />
In 1919, Maugham's The Moon and Sixpence was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about The Moon and Sixpence. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici’s translation version and Li Jihong’s tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.<br />
<br />
Research Methodology:<br />
1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information about the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials we can learn a lot of knowledge that we do not know so that we can complete the thesis more fully.<br />
2. Example-analysis: through this thesis I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis also will illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic during application. <br />
3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will chose the Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese versions to make comparison through words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing some difference of the two Chinese versions that we can have deeper understood about the functional equivalence theory in the application. <br />
4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show the relation with functional equivalence or the difference with it. This thesis also will list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Chapter 1 The functional equivalence theory<br />
<br />
1.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida<br />
Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist about translation in American. And his translation theory has larger influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and inland. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies about the modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated the most noted theorist. <br />
Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created the outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master’s degree about Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943 that he got his doctor degree after graduated from master. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty is to check and estimate the publications of Bibles. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. For helping the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture he went to 85 countries and experienced the various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades for bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.<br />
<br />
1.2 Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory<br />
In the early period of Nida’s essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory. <br />
The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language’s formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word’s coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader’s response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn’t understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.<br />
The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops form the formal equivalence. For avoiding it often is misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes the communication with the language and cultural.<br />
The functional equivalence is defined as “a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the “white as frost” to replace the “white as snow” if there isn’t snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into “very very white”. Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads’ response under the different cultural and language. So he used “the functional equivalence” to replace “the dynamic equivalence” in the year of 1969. The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers’ repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader’s response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers’ response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people’s abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.<br />
Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What’s more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the “literal translation” and the “liberal translation”. <br />
<br />
1.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad<br />
Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory’s research is mainly focused on the study of translation’s guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works’ content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about The Moon and Sixpence at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist’s characteristic or the author’s background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing The Moon and sixpence from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Chapter 2 Introduction of The Moon and Sixpence and Its Two Chinese versions<br />
<br />
2.1 Brief Introduction of The Moon and sixpence<br />
The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality.<br />
The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland’s family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.<br />
The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn’t drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. <br />
Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.<br />
Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings.<br />
After the publishing of The Moon and Sixpence, it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world. <br />
<br />
2.2 The Characteristics of the language<br />
Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What’s more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers. <br />
His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in The Moon and Sixpence when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write “I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests.” By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham’s writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text.<br />
The novel describes Charles Strickland’s feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn’t define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you.” These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven’t read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn’t feel the women’s feeling. <br />
Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said “Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls.” This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.<br />
<br />
2.3 Introduction of Fu Weici’s and Li Jihong’s Chinese Versions<br />
Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici’ version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring. <br />
Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne , conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici’s version, Li Jihong’ version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Chapter 3 A Comparative Study of The Moon and Sixpence’s Two Chinese versions<br />
<br />
3.1 A comparative Study on the meaning<br />
3.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning<br />
The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world’s objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word’s designative meaning.<br />
There are some instances of the two versions of The Moon and Sixpence following.<br />
Example 1: “All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris.”<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。”<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。”<br />
In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people’s resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. <br />
Example 2: “It was about five years after this.”<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “这件事过去大约五年之后”<br />
Li JIhong’s version: “大概过了五年”<br />
The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland’s experience and his life of persuading his dream. <br />
In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn’t be referred in Li Jihong’s. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing. <br />
Example 3: “The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature.”<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。”<br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。”<br />
The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn’t time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn’t control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong’s translation is better than Fu Weici’s. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words’ meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original’s language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn’t control. <br />
<br />
3.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning<br />
The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language’s associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning’s expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.<br />
Example 1: “Yes, she hadn’t a drop of white blood in her.” <br />
Fu Weici’s version: “是的，一滴白人的血液也没有。” <br />
Li Jihong’s version: “是的，她的身上没有半滴白人的血。”<br />
It’s about the last journey of Strickland’s life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn’t touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici’s version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血，however in Li Jihong’s, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don’t think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong’s version is better than Fu Weici’s version.<br />
Example 2: “Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him” <br />
Fu Weici’s version: “思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。” <br />
Li Jihong’s version: “思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。”<br />
“桎梏” is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called “桎” when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called “梏” when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe “桎梏”. In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don’t understand the Chinese culture maybe can’t understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style<br />
3.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile<br />
Example 1: “He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither.”<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。” <br />
Li Jihong’s version: “他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。”<br />
The “小羊” refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the “绵羊” is more specific. When it comes to “绵羊”， the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep’s fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong’s version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep’s character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland’s friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn’t show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people’s fear.<br />
Example 2: “She was desire.” <br />
Fu Weici’s version: “成了欲念的化身” <br />
Li Jihong’s version: “她变成了欲望的化身。<br />
The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren’t essential difference between the “欲念” and “欲望”. They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn’t give her any more birthright and he didn’t get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.<br />
Example 3: “I don’t disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I’m interested in his mental processes.” <br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。” <br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。”<br />
The main features of “蟒蛇” is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. “毒蛇” refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn’t feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland’s action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the “蟒蛇”. According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the “毒蛇” are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to “毒蛇” is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition<br />
Example 2: “I will never have him in my house-never.”<br />
Fu Weici’s version: “我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。” <br />
Li Jihong’s version: “我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。”<br />
Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says “I will never have him in my house-never”. Two repetition of “never” shows the Mrs. Stroeve’s firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.<br />
<br />
3.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission<br />
3.3.1 The Culture, language and Translation<br />
The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn’t constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.<br />
In Eugene Nida’s perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn’t beyond the target language readers’ acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. “Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.” (Nida 1964:91) <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Chapter 4 Conclusion<br />
<br />
4.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions<br />
Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong’s version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong’s version, the Fu Weici’s version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader’s preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter’s translation is more closed to modern readers’ reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits. <br />
To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of The Moon and Six-pence and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.<br />
<br />
4.2 The Limitation of Present Study<br />
As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of The Moon and Sixpence on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author’s personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.<br />
<br />
<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
<br />
At the completion of this thesis, first of all, I would like to deepest thank my thesis advisor Zhang Bo, without his encouragement and guidance, my thesis couldn’t be completed. He has helped me via all the stages of writing of this thesis. If without his consistent and illuminating instruction, the thesis couldn’t have reached the present form. Finally, under his guidance, I finished my thesis.<br />
Secondly, I also want to thank my classmates and teachers who have taught me for two years in the Foreign Languages Department. Thanking for their company and encouragement for me, I could finish academic happily. <br />
Eventually I want to gratitude my family’s considerations in me all through these years and their supports for me. Without their encouragement and support, I would not have been able to finish my studies.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Bibliography<br />
<br />
[1] W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.<br />
[2] Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.<br />
[4]Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
[5]Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.<br />
[6]Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
[8]Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br />
[9]傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.<br />
[10]李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.<br />
[11]张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.<br />
[12]郭晓玲.从功能对等角度看《红楼梦》金陵判词的英译--比较三个译本[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2014.<br />
[13]曹菁.“功能对等”理论在文学翻译中的应用--以小说《浮世浅游》的中译本为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2013.<br />
[14]刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.<br />
[15]孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).<br />
[16]刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.<br />
[17]顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.<br />
[18]陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.<br />
[19]王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.<br />
[20]赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.<br />
[21]王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.<br />
[22]马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.<br />
<br />
==On Subtitle Translation of Why Women Kill from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translationTranslation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng==<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation 刘艺 Liu Yi==<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue==<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies 马娟 Ma Juan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies;<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Influences of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Coping Strategies of The Influence'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''=== <br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn 吴琪 Wu Qi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Polysystem theory, Cultural turn, Translation studies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''=== <br />
多元系统理论，文化转向，翻译研究<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
==='''2. Development of polysystem theory'''===<br />
2. 1 Research Background<br />
<br />
2. 1. 1 Historical Background<br />
<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II. and there are almost no native cultures and literary works. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works. <br />
<br />
2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources<br />
<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar.<br />
<br />
2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered<br />
<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of mechanical rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation.<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply. <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a more perfect research idea for cultural studies. The International Association for comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(张素文, 2019). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely broke the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on. Thanks to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages(曾文雄, 2006). Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies. <br />
<br />
2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory<br />
<br />
2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar<br />
<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, what is the definition of Polysystem systems? Zohar generalized it as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge. Second, what does the polysystem theory refer to? It points out that in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus forms a dynamic translation study. Third, how are the levels in the Polysystem system classified? Zohar locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and classifies them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from.<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
①. When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country.<br />
<br />
②. When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation.<br />
<br />
③. When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems. Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, in most cases, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language as much as possible, so that the source language culture can be integrated into the target language culture and the target language readers can accept it more easily, which creates contradictions, because, by introducing excellent works from other regions into the target language, It should be aimed at absorbing the high-quality culture of other countries, but if all the cultural features, new ideas, and expressions of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state. in such a system.<br />
<br />
2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury<br />
<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized and authoritative theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation between the two texts, and then the translation is constantly improved and perfected. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality; Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which is part of Toury's description translation theory. Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted and used by translators in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents. It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on.<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman put forward new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(吴际, 2018). <br />
<br />
2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy<br />
<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in The Translator's Invisibility. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text, and brings readers into foreign contexts. In other words, foreignization translation requires the translator to be close to the source text and adopt the expressions to convey the original content. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context. The differences between them are obvious and cannot be confused.<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color.<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity.<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(斯托, 林纾, & 魏易, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s.Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the pluralistic system of Chinese literature. Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at this time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced A Midsummer Night’s Dream, translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem.<br />
<br />
According to the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu should adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy should accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating A Midsummer Night's Dream, this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William). <br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊， 是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘,这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of "domestication." <br />
The above application gives us inspiration, that is, in specific translation activities, the cultural exchange between the source language and the target language is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity and choose appropriate translation strategies based on their knowledge and personal understanding. Not strictly abide by a certain theory, because translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation, and it is not rigid and static. In the process of translation, only combined with specific cultural context and personal understanding, can translators figure out the best translation strategies and methods. Only by combining scientific theory with translator's subjectivity can we accomplish every translation activity best.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Development of Cultural Turn'''===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and promote translation studies to become an independent discipline. Among them, Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline with its own characteristics under the active propaganda of the cultural approach, which has also become the basis of extensive research on cultural turn in translation studies. Bassnett also has a famous metaphor about culture and language, which also expresses her emphasis on culture. She points out that culture is compared to the human body, and language is the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Bassnett, 1995). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” was put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere inheriting Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon of "cultural turn" in translation. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of exploring translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context. Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target text, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text. At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors can influence it. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works. <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn, and the cultural turn has occurred in history. Xuan Huifang (轩慧芳, 2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school. At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. Only by learning the strengths of others can we surpass others. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to maintain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was very narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious.<br />
<br />
Only later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful and stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not direct translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time. However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology at all, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of works, like la Dame aux Camelias，Uncle Tom's cabin and David Copperfield, etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles of the original text, but to convey conducive information part of the original text to the target readers. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory.<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. During that period, the translation mainly focuses on how to transform Chinese traditional culture benefiting from western culture and make the Chinese nation rejuvenate. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to break the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. For example, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai, who are well known to us, are representative figures. However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that our own language form, Classical Chinese, should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity.<br />
<br />
==='''4. Judgement'''===<br />
<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
4. 1 Advantages<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic schools tend to pay too much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events. Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in a vacuum environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations. <br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". <br />
Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can understand the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. After fully understanding this phenomenon, it can also be used to guide us on how to better promote our own culture through translation, which is an unprecedented opportunity for translation studies. At the same time, according to Zohar's theory, we can also know that only with a higher level of research can we better convey our own culture and contribute to our translation studies. <br />
<br />
4. 2 Disadvantages<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, and the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem: which means that texts are chosen because they are consistent with the new methods of target literature, and also because of their possible innovative role in target literature. However, the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations.<br />
<br />
Although the linguistic school pays too much attention to the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of scientific theories to study translation by studying syntax and vocabulary, which has merits. However, the attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is to completely negate and abandon it. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's eyes are completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations.<br />
<br />
==='''5. Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for cultural elements in promoting translation studies. Up to now, polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities(韩雪, 2019). The findings reported here also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators. When the earth is like a "village", our cultural exchanges with other countries are getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also change their attitudes, think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
==='''6. References'''===<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. 社会科学家(05), 193-197. <br />
<br />
韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究. 福建茶叶, 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录: 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. 校园英语(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”. 延安大学学报(社会科学版), 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建. 文理导航(上旬)(03), 93+95.<br />
<br />
==The influence of cultural differences on translation methods 姚佳 Yao Jia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The long-term transmission of culture must depend on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become the cultural transmission between countries. There are some differences between Chinese and Western social values and ways of thinking. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are simply understood from the expression. In addition, different nationalities are often influenced by their own cultures in the process of historical development, which will also lead to mistakes in Chinese and English translation. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They began to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
<br />
===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
<br />
2.1 The Historical Background<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2 The Thinking Mode <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.3 The Social Customs<br />
<br />
===Influences of cultural differences on translation===<br />
<br />
3.1 Lexical gap <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2 Semantic conflict<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3 Use specific translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences<br />
<br />
===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
<br />
4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Work Cited===<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan==<br />
<br />
==Characteristics of Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong==<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
Abstract: As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics. Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
Key Words: TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
摘要：中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
关键词：旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
I. Introduction <br />
China is a large tourism country with rapid development of tourism industry. Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material(hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors.<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012:70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. <br />
Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
II. Literature Review <br />
<br />
III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences<br />
<br />
IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules <br />
<br />
V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
VI. Conclusion <br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong==<br />
<br />
摘 要：随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
关键词：功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
Abstract: With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Key Words: corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
==Functional Equivalence Theory and Functional Translation in Translation Studies 阳慧 Yang Hui==<br />
<br />
==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei==<br />
摘要：儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
<br />
Abstract: Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''Lion King'', the thesis makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
<br />
Key Words: Children's Psychological Characters, Children's Literature, Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=107599History of Translation Studies 72020-12-06T05:40:13Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Comparisons of Translation in China and Western Countries from Different Historical Perspectivesr 彭丹 Peng Dan */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Final Exam Papers Part 1]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Final Exam Papers Part 2]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Final Exam Papers Part 3]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Final Exam Papers Part 4]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Final Exam Papers Part 5]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Final Exam Papers Part 6]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Final Exam Papers Part 7]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Final Exam Papers Part 8]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Final Exam Papers Part 9]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Final Exam Papers Part 10]<br />
<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu==<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
In the context of economic and social globalization, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on local national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain the cultural characteristics of the source language to the greatest extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the limitations of foreignizing translation and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本文章从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的局限性以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
异化翻译：民族文化<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for the translated text will be more easily accepted by the target language readers. Although this may attract more target language readers, in the translation process of "domestication", we allow the source language culture to adapt to the target language culture, and even replace the source language culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality of cultural production and transformation is concerned, this is likely to cause the development of the homogeneity of the cultures of various ethnic groups, and this does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization, and is not conducive to maintaining the cultural uniqueness of various ethnic groups. A typical domesticated translation in Chinese-English translation is David Hawkes's translation of "red" in ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''. Considering the different understanding of red in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". Although this translation is conducive to the understanding of western readers, it also loses the cultural connotation of Chinese red. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With such kind of domesticating translation, western readers can never really understand the real Chinese culture. Compared with domesticated translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.<br />
<br />
==='''2.The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
The concept of foreignization translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St.Jerome in ancient Rome, which is the embryonic form of literal translation. The most famous translator in the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, had a rich view of literal translation as (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content, neither can be achieved. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments. During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation method. In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation method is for the translator to follow the original author's meaning ; if possible, follow his words closely, and finally reproduce his character as much as possible. Charles Batteux believes that the first translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible.<br />
<br />
From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained at the level of language meaning, content and formal style. The development in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology has gradually extended and developed literal translation, which is the basis of Western foreignizing translation ideas.<br />
<br />
Friedrich Schleiermacher put forward two very different translation methods in his famous speech entitled "On Different Translation Methods": the translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader as much as possible stay still and make the original author approach the reader. He advocated that the first translation method, the foreignizing translation method, is the real translation method, allowing readers to appreciate foreign customs and respecting language and cultural differences.<br />
<br />
Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves in themselves, so language itself is translation. Benjamin emphasized the directness of language and intended to subvert the bourgeois instrumental language view. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation method, retaining the language form of the original text, that is, the difference in the way of meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation method is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. It is to achieve the ultimate goal of pure language human salvation.<br />
<br />
Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book "The Test of Difference" in response to the traditional translation thought centered on "the transmission of meaning" that has long dominated the western translation world. The translation ethics advocated by Berman is to respect the original work and respect the language and cultural differences in the original work. To this end, he advocates foreignizing translation, implements foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, enriches himself through the introduction of "others", in order to achieve his goal of translation ethics.<br />
<br />
Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, the concept and terminology of "foreignizing translation" have not been promoted to the agenda of translation studies until 1995, when Lawrence Venuti published his famous book "The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation". Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology. Its rich connotations can be summarized in the following five points: differences in material selection, language Differences with culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the target language culture, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti’s translation ethics emphasizes the absorption and acceptance of the “other” as the “other”. On the one hand, it respects the language and cultural differences of the foreign other, and on the other hand, it can be used to challenge the culture of the target language. Mainstream values<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation '''===<br />
Translation circles have different definitions of foreignizing translation, but generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that preserves the characteristics of the source language, which will help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’ perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.<br />
<br />
===='''3.1.The Need of Language Development'''====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges among countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation played a very important role in this process. The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary did not exist in the target country, but through the translator's foreignizing translation, a large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people. And it can be widely disseminated and used in popular culture. For example: "honeymoon" (蜜月), this word had no corresponding expression in Chinese at the time, and its meaning (the first month of the wedding) did not exist in Chinese at that time. It was Lin Shu's method of alienation. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. There are also many other words, such as "咖啡（coffee）", "丁克（DINK）", and "可乐（cola）", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi(饺子）", "tofu（豆腐）", "Kungfu（功夫）" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. Once these foreign words are accepted by the society，they are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language alienation. The alienation of language is the general trend, and it cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing method actually follows the universal law of language development.<br />
<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation is not limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level (Wang Kefei, 2002:458). When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he discussed a dozen of foriegnizing translation of syntaxes. Facts have proved that the foreignized syntax of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the Chinese vernacular. Modern Chinese is also influenced by Western languages, and the frequency and scope of passive voice use have expanded. Passive form was used as early as in ancient Chinese, but it is rare, and it is generally used to express misfortune or unpleasant experience. Affected by the translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant things. It means that the syntax of source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language.<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the use of foreignization translation method can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some vocabulary and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this kind of thinking, they showed great importance to the language form of the original text.<br />
<br />
In China, Mr. Lu Xun has always advocated foreignization translation for the purpose of importing new expressions to develop vernacular Chinese. "Chinese are too imprecise...To solve this problem, I thought I had to endure a little bitterness one after another and put in strange, ancient, foreign syntax. Then we could take it as ourselves." (Chen Fukang, 1992:298). In the fifteen or sixteen years after the May Fourth Movement, many writers and translators consciously adopted the foreignization translation method under the advocacy of Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai and others. Their works not only absorbed a large number of Western vocabulary, but also used some syntactic structures of Western languages, which gradually overcomed the lack of vocabulary and thin sentence structure of ancient Chinese, and promoted the final development and maturity of the vernacular.<br />
<br />
===='''3.2.The Need of Culture Communication'''====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which all have contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depends more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and new expressions. The French philosopher Derrida believes that "translation is to play with similarities and differences in endless analysis." Through translation, we can achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.<br />
<br />
In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential source language culture. Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors and behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. For this kind of proverb, if you blindly adopt the domestication translation method, translate "God help those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but sure" as "天网恢恢 疏而不漏". Then, for most Chinese readers, they may never understand the true religious culture of the West.<br />
<br />
Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices. This is the only way to multiculturalism. When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. But the cultural connotation of pudding for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of pudding in the translation. Another example is the proverb "Unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖，不友善" by using domesticating translation method, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the original culture. Therefore, using foreignizing translation method, "不亲吻，不友善" can make readers understand the difference between Western etiquette and Chinese, and will not cause obstacles in cultural exchanges.<br />
<br />
==='''The Limitations of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Influence of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Work Cited'''===<br />
<br />
== Analysis on the Key problems in Chinese-English Translation and Corresponding Solutions ----- Based on Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation 姜好 Jiang Hao==<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing==<br />
<br />
===解释学视角下''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''译本的对比研究===<br />
<br />
===ABSTRACT===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary <br />
translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic <br />
theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and <br />
fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and <br />
translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. Then the author and translator <br />
of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words: Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history===<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密<br />
切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫<br />
人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对<br />
译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。通过以上分析，笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的<br />
时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词：解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s. In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers. The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of <br />
different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into <br />
hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic <br />
philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works. These three <br />
principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In <br />
view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics==== <br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, the <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics（郑立平，易新奇，2015：101-104）.<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must <br />
explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language <br />
understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. With the continuous secularization <br />
of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of <br />
literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were <br />
deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they are called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics as a dual task of theory and practice lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom” (洪汉鼎，2010:459).And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he believed that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that stood before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but should be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile. <br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons. The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text（章启群，2002:77）. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical roots of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers. <br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.<br />
<br />
====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
<br />
Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.<br />
<br />
At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission in translating this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. Translator Lin Shu ’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.<br />
<br />
====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.<br />
<br />
===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
<br />
The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation（陈宏薇，2004：24）. Therefore, in the following chapter, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.<br />
<br />
====3.1. Comparative Analysis from a Linguistic Perspective====<br />
<br />
The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese. Then they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
<br />
Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. “Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe, 2011:3)<br />
<br />
林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(林纾&魏易，1981：4)<br />
<br />
黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（黄继忠，1993:3）<br />
<br />
This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong. The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts.<br />
According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. (谢天振，2000：204) "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ".<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
<br />
Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:<br />
<br />
2. “I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br />
<br />
林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)<br />
<br />
黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br />
<br />
This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” (Gadamer H, 1999:250) Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.<br />
<br />
3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe, 2011:132)<br />
<br />
林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(林纾&魏易，1981：45)<br />
<br />
黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（黄继忠，1993:94）<br />
<br />
When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.<br />
During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary work in the same era, and different versions of the same literary work will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
<br />
4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br />
<br />
林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)<br />
<br />
黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br />
<br />
In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.<br />
<br />
According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.” ( 柳晓辉, 2010: 125 )Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text. However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities.<br />
<br />
5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe, 2011: 2)<br />
<br />
林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(林纾&魏易，1981：3)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（黄继忠，1993:1）<br />
<br />
This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel. This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.<br />
<br />
====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
<br />
British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society".(Hebding&Glick,1992：37) Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，the translator must bring the characteristics of his own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translator's language and culture are different from the original author's culture.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
<br />
A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating this religious content, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:<br />
<br />
6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe, 2011: 95)<br />
<br />
林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (林纾&魏易，1981：34)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（黄继忠，1993:72）<br />
<br />
In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.<br />
<br />
This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.<br />
<br />
7.There were others，which made incessant mention of “Jordan’s bank”,and “Canaan’s field”, and the “New Jerusalem”. (Stowe, 2011: 46)<br />
In the above example, there are many religious words, such as "Jordan ’s bank", "Canaan ’s field", and "New Jerusalem". Lin Shu chose to omit them, while Huang Jizhong chose to translate them literally, translating them into “约旦河岸”、“迦南战场”and“新耶路撒冷”. These words are all from Bible and contain a wealth of referential meanings. The development of Christianity in China in the two eras was different, which was the key reason for the difference in translation between the two translators. Lin Shu's translation version is related to his era, and is closely connected with his own translation purpose. The different translation versions of the two translators are in line with their own horizons and knowledge structure, and they can also meet the readers' expectations. The different treatment methods for the religious content appearing in the original text fully reflect the translator's subjectivity and creativity. Both translators have contributed wonderful translation versions to readers of different eras.<br />
<br />
From a perspective fusion perspective, Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture. (朱健平，2006:69-74)The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
<br />
Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br />
<br />
8. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe, 2011:73）<br />
<br />
林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（林纾&魏易，1981：25）<br />
<br />
黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（黄继忠，1993：49）<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.<br />
<br />
In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of understanding. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.<br />
<br />
9. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe, 2011:215）<br />
<br />
林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(林纾&魏易，1981:75)<br />
<br />
黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（黄继忠，1993：143）<br />
<br />
A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture（李磊，2008）.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking. (邹广胜，2001，（4）：2) . Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works. 2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method[M]. Beijing: Peking University Press, 1999:250.<br />
<br />
Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. Introduction to Sociology: A Text with Reading[M]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992:37.<br />
<br />
Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin[M]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd, 2011:2、3、44、46、73、95、132、215.<br />
<br />
Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:56.<br />
<br />
陈宏薇.新编汉英翻译教程[Z].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2004:24.<br />
<br />
洪汉鼎.诠释学：真理与方法[M].北京：商务印书馆, 2010:459.<br />
<br />
黄继忠.汤姆大伯的小屋[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 1993:1、3、30、49、72、94、143.<br />
<br />
李磊.从伽达默尔哲学阐释学看Uncle Tom’s Cabin 的两个中译本[D].上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2008.<br />
<br />
林纾,魏易.黑奴吁天录[M].北京:商务印书馆, 1981:3、4、14、25、34、45、75.<br />
<br />
柳晓辉.译者主体性的语言哲学反思[J].外语学刊, 2010，（1）：122-125.<br />
<br />
谢天振.翻译的理论建构与文化透视[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000:204.<br />
<br />
邹广胜.读者的主体性与文本的主体性[J].外国文学研究, 2001,（4）：1-7.<br />
<br />
朱健平.翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观[J].解放军外国语学院报, 2006,（2）：69-74.<br />
<br />
郑立平,易新奇.翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释[J].外语学刊, 2015,（04）:101-104.<br />
<br />
章启群.意义的本体论----哲学阐释学[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 2002:77.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
<br />
==On Subtitle Translation of Why Women Kill from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translationTranslation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng==<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation 刘艺 Liu Yi==<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue==<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies 马娟 Ma Juan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies;<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Influences of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The Coping Strategies of The Influence'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''=== <br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn 吴琪 Wu Qi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Polysystem theory, Cultural turn, Translation studies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''=== <br />
多元系统理论，文化转向，翻译研究<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
==='''2. Development of polysystem theory'''===<br />
2. 1 Research Background<br />
<br />
2. 1. 1 Historical Background<br />
<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II. and there are almost no native cultures and literary works. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works. <br />
<br />
2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources<br />
<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar.<br />
<br />
2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered<br />
<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of mechanical rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation.<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply. <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a more perfect research idea for cultural studies. The International Association for comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(张素文, 2019). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely broke the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on. Thanks to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages(曾文雄, 2006). Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies. <br />
<br />
2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory<br />
<br />
2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar<br />
<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, what is the definition of Polysystem systems? Zohar generalized it as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge. Second, what does the polysystem theory refer to? It points out that in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus forms a dynamic translation study. Third, how are the levels in the Polysystem system classified? Zohar locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and classifies them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from.<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
①. When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country.<br />
<br />
②. When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation.<br />
<br />
③. When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems. Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, in most cases, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language as much as possible, so that the source language culture can be integrated into the target language culture and the target language readers can accept it more easily, which creates contradictions, because, by introducing excellent works from other regions into the target language, It should be aimed at absorbing the high-quality culture of other countries, but if all the cultural features, new ideas, and expressions of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state. in such a system.<br />
<br />
2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury<br />
<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized and authoritative theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation between the two texts, and then the translation is constantly improved and perfected. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality; Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which is part of Toury's description translation theory. Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted and used by translators in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents. It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on.<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman put forward new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(吴际, 2018). <br />
<br />
2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy<br />
<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in The Translator's Invisibility. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text, and brings readers into foreign contexts. In other words, foreignization translation requires the translator to be close to the source text and adopt the expressions to convey the original content. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context. The differences between them are obvious and cannot be confused.<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color.<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity.<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(斯托, 林纾, & 魏易, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s.Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the pluralistic system of Chinese literature. Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at this time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced A Midsummer Night’s Dream, translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem.<br />
<br />
According to the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu should adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy should accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating A Midsummer Night's Dream, this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William). <br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊， 是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘,这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
the translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of "domestication." <br />
The above application gives us inspiration, that is, in specific translation activities, the cultural exchange between the source language and the target language is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity and choose appropriate translation strategies based on their knowledge and personal understanding. Not strictly abide by a certain theory, because translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation, and it is not rigid and static. In the process of translation, only combined with specific cultural context and personal understanding, can translators figure out the best translation strategies and methods. Only by combining scientific theory with translator's subjectivity can we accomplish every translation activity best.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Development of Cultural Turn'''===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and promote translation studies to become an independent discipline. Among them, Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline with its own characteristics under the active propaganda of the cultural approach, which has also become the basis of extensive research on cultural turn in translation studies. Bassnett also has a famous metaphor about culture and language, which also expresses her emphasis on culture. She points out that culture is compared to the human body, and language is the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Bassnett, 1995). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” was put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere inheriting Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon of "cultural turn" in translation. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of exploring translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context. Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target text, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text. At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors can influence it. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works. <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn, and the cultural turn has occurred in history. Xuan Huifang (轩慧芳, 2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school. At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. Only by learning the strengths of others can we surpass others. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to maintain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was very narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious.<br />
<br />
Only later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful and stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not direct translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time. However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology at all, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of works, like la Dame aux Camelias，Uncle Tom's cabin and David Copperfield, etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles of the original text, but to convey conducive information part of the original text to the target readers. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory.<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. During that period, the translation mainly focuses on how to transform Chinese traditional culture benefiting from western culture and make the Chinese nation rejuvenate. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to break the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. For example, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai, who are well known to us, are representative figures. However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that our own language form, Classical Chinese, should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity.<br />
<br />
==='''4. Judgement'''===<br />
<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
4. 1 Advantages<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic schools tend to pay too much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events. Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in a vacuum environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations. <br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach". <br />
Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can understand the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. After fully understanding this phenomenon, it can also be used to guide us on how to better promote our own culture through translation, which is an unprecedented opportunity for translation studies. At the same time, according to Zohar's theory, we can also know that only with a higher level of research can we better convey our own culture and contribute to our translation studies. <br />
<br />
4. 2 Disadvantages<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, and the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem: which means that texts are chosen because they are consistent with the new methods of target literature, and also because of their possible innovative role in target literature. However, the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations.<br />
<br />
Although the linguistic school pays too much attention to the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of scientific theories to study translation by studying syntax and vocabulary, which has merits. However, the attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is to completely negate and abandon it. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's eyes are completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations.<br />
<br />
==='''5. Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for cultural elements in promoting translation studies. Up to now, polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities(韩雪, 2019). The findings reported here also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators. When the earth is like a "village", our cultural exchanges with other countries are getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also change their attitudes, think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
==='''6. References'''===<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. 社会科学家(05), 193-197. <br />
<br />
韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究. 福建茶叶, 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录: 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. 校园英语(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”. 延安大学学报(社会科学版), 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建. 文理导航(上旬)(03), 93+95.<br />
<br />
==The influence of cultural differences on translation methods 姚佳 Yao Jia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The long-term transmission of culture must depend on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become the cultural transmission between countries. There are some differences between Chinese and Western social values and ways of thinking. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are simply understood from the expression. In addition, different nationalities are often influenced by their own cultures in the process of historical development, which will also lead to mistakes in Chinese and English translation. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They began to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
<br />
===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
<br />
Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
<br />
2.1 The Historical Background<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2 The Thinking Mode <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.3 The Social Customs<br />
<br />
===Influences of cultural differences on translation===<br />
<br />
3.1 Lexical gap <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2 Semantic conflict<br />
<br />
<br />
3.3 Use specific translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences<br />
<br />
===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
<br />
4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
<br />
<br />
4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Work Cited===<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan==<br />
<br />
==Characteristics of Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong==<br />
<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
Abstract: As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics. Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
<br />
Key Words: TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
<br />
摘要：中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
<br />
关键词：旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
<br />
I. Introduction <br />
China is a large tourism country with rapid development of tourism industry. Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material(hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors.<br />
Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012:70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. <br />
Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
<br />
II. Literature Review <br />
<br />
III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences<br />
<br />
IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules <br />
<br />
V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
<br />
VI. Conclusion <br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong==<br />
<br />
摘 要：随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
关键词：功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
Abstract: With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
Key Words: corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
==Functional Equivalence Theory and Functional Translation in Translation Studies 阳慧 Yang Hui==<br />
<br />
==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei==<br />
摘要：儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
<br />
Abstract: Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''Lion King'', the thesis makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
<br />
Key Words: Children's Psychological Characters, Children's Literature, Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=10650220201130 trans2020-11-30T01:46:40Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Luo Weijia 罗维嘉 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
<br />
Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years.<br />
<br />
这是一个很好的例子，证明美食通常是由国家特色来定义的（但也适用于更小的地区间）。意大利美食的存在是无可争议的，但是没有必要为了地道的意大利美食而专程去一趟。当然也有非常多具有欧洲特色版本的中国美食（例如加上很浓的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
<br />
饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎是很难被改变的。尽管这位作家在中国待了很长的时间，但还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:55, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
要阐明美食通常由国界定义（在较小地区中也适用），这是个很好的例子。意大利菜的存在毋庸置疑，但不一定要去意大利才能吃到地道的意大利菜。当然还一直有欧化的中国菜肴（如加上浓郁的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
<br />
饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎很难改变，就算作者在中国待了数年，也还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
<br />
Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
<br />
北京大学食堂将意大利肉酱面作为一道午餐，在没吃到这顿饭之前，人们还是非常开心的。显然，只有外观保留了下来，意大利面的外观看起来与食谱上非常的相似，然而，它的味道却是糟糕至极，显然，厨师将番茄当作水果而不是蔬菜来烹饪的，面条煮得时间也过长。<br />
<br />
同样企业中也存在这种文化。例如，德国企业在许多国家运行得有条不紊的，即使同一件产品的生产过程也因国家而异，但是在世界范围内却不断的标准化，特别是一个企业在几个国家中拥有专利过程时。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
当设定相同的任务时，即设计街道清洁车，这会带来有趣的国家解决方案。<br />
<br />
[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
<br />
街道清洁车 a)中国<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
<br />
街道清洁车 b)<br />
<br />
Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
<br />
Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代以来，作者亲身体验了在美国的一家中外软件公司（如PC Express，后来在洛杉矶的TwinBridge）、中国本土的一家软件公司（如北京的新天地科技有限公司(Suntendy)）、中国的一家德国公司和一家中德混合公司工作的不同之处。这些亲身经历已写入这本手册。<br />
<br />
因此，这里的“文化”一词在很大程度上与传统或哲学同义，传统通常与过去有关，哲学则往往反映简化为几个原则的文化，因而已经有意识地加以控制且带有目的论色彩。基于这些原因，作者在目前的语境中选择了“文化”一词。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:28, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
<br />
In this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
<br />
The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
<br />
If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error.<br />
方法/视角<br />
工匠文化和商人文化的区分已经确立了有一段时间。这意味着在经济方面将会更多的精力放在开发尽可能完美的产品上，并不断地进行改善。经销商文化在尽可能以最低价格的购入和最高价格的售出之间所获得的利益上赋予更多的价值。我们在检查一个典型的投诉案例时，这种区别尤为明显：<br />
<br />
一位顾客若是抱怨手工艺文化中的产品，那么销售员就会考虑提供无差错交换产品或是给予经济补偿，并进一步报道产品错误， 可能会将产品送回公司以便找出错误。如果产品在好几处设备上都发生错误，原则上让开发部门消除错误。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
方法/观点<br />
工匠文化与商人文化的区分由来已久，这意味着在一个经济体中，将产品做到尽善尽美，不断提升产品质量会得到重点关注。经销商文化则将重点放在以尽可能便宜的价格购入和进可能贵的价格售出获得收益上。我们仔细研究一个典型投诉案例时，这种区别更加显而易见:<br />
在工匠文化中，顾客投诉会让店员很担忧，店员会主动退换成质量良好的商品或者给予资金赔偿，进一步通知产品的差错，尽可能地将产品送回，检验差错，如果几个产品都出现了差错，原则上会让研发部门消除差错。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
<br />
Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
<br />
Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
<br />
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed.<br />
<br />
在经销商文化中，服务和客户的满意度更为重要，在这里，客户是否生气以及对客户的投诉做出道歉和相应的补偿就显得尤为重要。而向制造商反馈是次要的。<br />
以下是一些属于相关类别的国家：<br />
工匠文化 零售商文化<br />
德国，法国，波兰，美国，中国，韩国<br />
生产文化和设计文化之间还有另一个区别。<br />
在19，20世纪，美国的机械工程发展了生产文化，而德国产生了建筑文化。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:06, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
<br />
In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
<br />
在德国，弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒率先在美国进行了合理化的各项工作，很快就为大众所接受，其中包括在1904年在柏林，1908年在亚琛以及1910年在汉诺威依次设立了工商管理部主任。因此，我认同库恩泽（Kunze)在2008年提出的观点，当时他对科斯关于1914年之前德国生产文化落后的看法是持反对意见的。<br />
<br />
在德国，作为一种工匠文化，产品在早期就注重多样性，并通过不断优化来实现。即使是在团队中，焦点仍是那些高素质的人，他们独立完成团队任务并承担相应的责任。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:21, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
<br />
After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
<br />
日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，日本不像德国那样通过马歇尔计划获得大量融资。出于自身需要，日本经济尽己所能，实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。因此，一种独特的民族生产文化应运而生，其特征如下：<br />
<br />
现代日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
<br />
日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
<br />
1.精益生产（无污染生产得以推广）<br />
<br />
2.准时生产/有序生产（高标准生产/高要求生产）<br />
<br />
3.质量圈/今井正明优化团队<br />
<br />
4.近期发展：多部门结构和去中央集权化--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，日本不像德国那样通过诸如马歇尔计划等契机获得大量融资。迫于经济压力，日本竭尽所能实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。这也催生了一种独特的民族生产文化，其总体特征如下：<br />
<br />
现代日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
<br />
日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
=＞国际讨论，分析和效仿的结果<br />
<br />
1. 精益化生产（推广零污染生产）<br />
<br />
2. 准时制生产/有序生产（按需生产）<br />
<br />
3. 质量研讨小组/优化改善小组<br />
<br />
4. 近期发展：多部门结构和权力下放--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
<br />
The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
<br />
如今，日本的生产理念被认为是新生产技术的带头人，以及现代工业国家的基准。丰田生产体系的仰慕者和效仿者，保时捷前老板文德林•魏德金（Wendelin Wiedeking）表示：“丰田是一致性的代名词”。它是衡量工厂现代化程度的国际标准。<br />
<br />
日本的生产模式认为，仓储成本的产生主要是由于供大于求。因此，开发了确保仅当客户购买产品时才（再）生产产品的技术（按需生产）。生产单个产品的较高成本可以通过节省产品的中间存储（对于缓慢移动的产品为最终存储）来弥补。如今，在书籍制作等领域，该做法已成功使用。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 14:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available.<br />
<br />
然而，更重要的是要尽可能不去阻碍生产活动，如果有，则需要尽快消除。一个典型的现象是工厂因为某些待安装的材料未及时运输到位导致停工。在工厂，流水线生产中一台机器出了问题，整个生产都会停止。于是，日本的生产理念便起到作用。该理念旨在训练每一名员工能够自行修复小缺陷，并承担修复的责任。至于大一点的问题，则由团队来解决。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:01, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些小缺陷不会第一时间出现，一旦出现，不仅要修复缺陷，而且要想出避免缺陷再次发生的办法，即：他们不仅要修复缺陷，而且要找出缺陷出现的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产中断的情况可能会出现。 然而在理想情况下，产量会根据需求进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地减慢或加快，最重要的是保证生产无间断且不发生任何故障。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会首先出现，并且不仅要修复缺陷，而且还考虑一种方法，来确保将来不会出现这种缺陷，即他们不仅要修复缺陷，还要解决缺陷的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，可以想象，生产也会中断。理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前需求的强劲程度，相应地降低或加快生产速度。最重要的是生产得不间断且无故障。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture.<br />
<br />
参与生产过程的员工可以提出自己的创新想法，日本的奖励制度与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在该想法实现之前，提出这个想法的人立即就得到一笔相关的钱，不需要重重审批。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或是持续改善团队。这些是比较小的工作组，负责生产环节的一小部分。他们应该在一开始就碰个面，然后至少每周定期开一次会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
<br />
最近，人们也提到了日本生产文化的其他因素，例如多部门结构和权力下放机制。它们也同样存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:03, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的雇员个人提出的创新也有类似的作用。在这里，重要的是，有想法的人在想法实施之前很久就能立即无官僚主义地得到一笔相关的资金。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或Kaizen小组。这些是较小的工作小组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开一次会，然后定期至少每周开一次会，公开讨论改进的建议。<br />
<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他要素也被提及，如多部门结构和分权。美国的生产文化中也有这些内容。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的个体员工所引入的创新的运作方式与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在想法实现之前，有想法的人立即得到一笔相关的钱，而不是官僚作风。<br />
另一个要素是质量循环或改善团队。这些是较小的工作组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开会一次，然后每周至少定期开会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他因素也被提到，例如多部门结构和权力下放。它们也存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
<br />
因此，今天的中国再次成为世界领先的经济体（从公元0年到公元1200年）。中国生产文化的一个特点就是它的连续性。几千年来，中国一直不间断地生产丝绸、茶叶、瓷器等产品。尽管在公元1200年至2000年期间，中国的生产并不是世界领先的，但在很长一段时间内，它基本上保持在一个稳定的水平上，才赶上了工业革命的迅速发展。如此悠久的生产文化在世界范围内是无与伦比的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the <br />
<br />
有一点仍然值得牢记，那就是中国正再一次成为经济领导国，但是在这个人口大国，并非所有的中国人都能从这个经济领导地位中获得相等的利益。当将绝对数据（如国内生产总值或与国内生产总值增长相关的数据）与相对数据（如人均国内生产总值）进行比较时，这种现象就很显而易见了。这里有一个类似的比较：<br />
<br />
[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
<br />
I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
<br />
我想由以下几个问题来引出我对生产文化的重要性的分析：<br />
<br />
Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
<br />
生产文化和（经济的）快速增长之间有联系吗？它是否是（经济）增长的原因？<br />
<br />
Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
<br />
显然，中国的生产文化还没有成为当代生产文化的一个国际模板。其原因是生产文化所具有的文化特异性吗？还有其他原因吗？其他原因又是否合理呢？<br />
<br />
In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
<br />
为了找到回答这些问题的线索，下面对中国生产文化进行了考察与定义。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:35, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
<br />
·Silk<br />
<br />
·Tea<br />
<br />
·Spices<br />
<br />
·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
<br />
·Jade<br />
<br />
·Bronze<br />
<br />
·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
<br />
·Iron<br />
<br />
·Paper<br />
<br />
·Gunpowder<br />
<br />
·Furs etc. <br />
<br />
The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
<br />
中国生产文化的真实性<br />
丝绸之路大约在公元前5世纪就有记载了，但是基因分析证明，大约在公元前1万年左右，丝绸之路就用来在双边贸易中，销售栽培植物与家养动物了。这条贸易之路也证明了文化交流的可能性。以下中国制造的产品在这条贸易之路上进行交易：<br />
·丝绸<br />
·茶叶<br />
·香料 <br />
·陶瓷<br />
·玉器<br />
·青铜器<br />
·漆器<br />
·铁<br />
·纸<br />
·火药<br />
·毛皮等<br />
当然，丝绸之路是双向的，黄金、宝石和玻璃很长一段时间都是从中国进口的。如果新丝绸之路能与铁路一起建成，将比目前的海运集装箱所需的运输成本和运输时间低好几倍。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:21, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
<br />
中国拥有世界上最大的商船--军舰，可容纳4000吨货物，中国也在海上贸易中占据了数百年的主导地位。早在公元前3世纪，中国就修建了皇帝运河，用于内河航运。<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
<br />
In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
ing时期的垃圾（14世纪）。<br />
<br />
从基督诞生到公元1200年，中国的国内生产总值是世界上最高的。直到1200年，中国才被西欧超越。<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
<br />
在1200年到2000年之间，中国远远落后于西方，成为发展中国家。 然而，从1700年至今，与美国和欧洲一样，中国也经历了人口爆炸。<br />
<br />
[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
<br />
While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
<br />
18世纪末，得益于工业革命，欧洲确保了更多人口的粮食供应。虽然在那时中国几乎处于休眠状态，但是到了20世纪，中国以迅雷不及掩耳之势赶上了欧洲：1900年，中国第一家工厂诞生；1950年，中央计划的大型生产单位出现；2000年私人企业产生，最初主要是合资企业，但这也导致了国内发展的不平衡。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:57, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
<br />
In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
<br />
In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
<br />
·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
<br />
·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings. <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
<br />
Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
<br />
'''Made in China'''<br />
<br />
The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
<br />
"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，如今中国的生产文化已不再封闭，比起日本受到西方文化的影响，中国受到历史影响的程度更深。甚至在21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商科对其进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来区别德国的劣质产品。直到后来，由于质量的提高，“德国制造”才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价、低工资、劣质、大规模生产和剽窃、等级观念以及廉价劳动力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:48, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天的中国生产文化不再纯正了，而且比日本的西方文化更受历史的影响。<br />
<br />
甚至连21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商学院进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来把本国的产品与德国的劣质产品区别开。直到后来，由于质量的提高，这个罪恶的标记才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价产品、低工资、低质量、大规模生产、抄袭、等级管理以及像“蚁族”一样的廉价劳动力。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
<br />
1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
<br />
2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
<br />
3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
<br />
但是实际上这个印象也只是停留在中国第一次大量生产的时候；在此期间的情形已经变了。<br />
<br />
1.在21世纪初，伴随着工资的极度增加，中国劳动市场第一次出现饱和。同时，支付给相对合格的一名中国工程师一天的工资和西方工业国家的是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2.之前最重要的生产部门现在已被作为经济领域中最重要的服务部门所取代。<br />
<br />
3.西方公司在中国一向都有质量保证的规则，中国也正在向西方学习。总所周知的劣质中国产品也已不再出现。在许多公司中，质量保证这一规则正在被实行。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:14, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但事实上，这只是对中国第一次大规模生产的早期印象而已；与此同时，情况在不断地变化。<br />
<br />
1 在21世纪初，中国的劳动市场第一次接近于饱和状态，这是由于工资的急剧增加。同时，一名合格的中国工程师的工资和西方工业国家的工资是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2 服务业逐渐替代了早些年最重要的生产部门作为重要的经济组成部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
3 中国现在也正在学习西方国家公司的质量保障规则，中国的产品很差这一传言已经成为了过去式了。如今在大部分的公司，质量保障这一规章用于实践。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:43, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
<br />
6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
<br />
[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4，除了复制西方的产品，中国也已经有了在国内进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机和笔记本电脑等）。<br />
<br />
5，中国公司如今正在全世界地购买一些掌握技术的公司（IBM笔记本部门=>联想‘沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6，由于极大地需求，中国公司的管理人员几乎把那些介绍了西方管理规则的畅销书买完了，并且带着好奇心和热情把这些规则应用于实践，比如说西方比较盛行的小组会议。如今在中国的公司，开会的频率远远高于德国（中国一天5次会议，而德国一天1-2次会议）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:26, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.除了再生产西方的产品，中国进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机，笔记本电脑等）已经可以买到。<br />
<br />
5.中国公司现在正在世界各地收购具备所需技术的公司（IBM的笔记本部门--联想、沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6.由于庞大的渴求，中国公司的管理人员读完了所有讲述西方管理细则的畅销书，并带着极大的好奇心和热情将这些细则运用于实践之中，例如，小组会议。如今相较于德国公司来说，小组会议在中国公司更加的普遍。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''Hierarchy'''<br />
<br />
Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
<br />
'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
<br />
In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
<br />
In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
<br />
'''Concept of Face'''<br />
<br />
For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
<br />
哥哥的地位自然比弟弟高。在汉语中，亲属称谓严格分为“长”和“幼”。前一个形容词“alter（改变）”在亲密形式中是一个敬语。<br />
在商业生活中，年长的员工也会因为他们的生活经历而受到尊重（也可能是因为他们所拥有的庞大关系网）。一个积极的副作用是这种经验仍然存在于公司。新的研究还显示，西方国家的老员工往往被低估，他们的经验必须得到更多的利用，知识才能留在公司。<br />
<br />
”面子的概念“<br />
面子这个概念是为了保护个人，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的。为此，公司遵守不成文的规则（制度）：不要在大众面前批评别人。如果必须进行批评，那么就委婉间接的说出来。一个人的请求不会被直接拒绝，我们不会直接说“不！”中国人对此的细微差别可能会有相应的分类。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“面子的概念<br />
面子之所以存在，是为了自我保护，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的也是如此。为此，公司有个不成文的规定：不要当众批评别人。如果必须要批评，那就婉约一点。我们不会直接拒绝别人的请求，不会直接说“不。”中国人对于这一观念极为敏感，他们“或许”知道怎样进行区分才能避免伤害。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
<br />
Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
<br />
One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
<br />
传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司的总经理职位，甚至是高级职位，最好都是那些能被任命者信任的人。最大的信任是由家庭关系给予的,或者是通过共同的生活阶段，例如出生在同一个村庄，在同一所学校，同一个俱乐部，等等。当然，职业资格也有助于建立信任，但这种信任不是特别重要。<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是党指定的，这些职位是由相应的干部结合而成的。<br />
这种任命政策的一个后果是领导普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司中的总经理及高级职位通常任命者所信任的。家庭关系给人最大的信任，比如家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:51, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures.<br />
从经济角度来说，这也是一个紧急情况，尤其是对那些管理着更有能力的下属的老板们来说。因此，结合表层含义，一方面，老板们不得不隐藏自己的无能，另一方面又想保住自己的位置，也就是说，他们面临着做出正确决策的巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板与专家非正式地讨论了可能的替代方案。最终，他获得了广泛的意见，并独自做出了对他来说最好的决定。桂冠实际上是别人的，这一事实仍未明说；它深厚了相关人员间的人情关系。一旦老板做出决定并传达给员工，员工就会执行，不会因为等级结构而产生矛盾。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在经济领域，这也是一种紧急情况，尤其当老板手下有着更为出色的员工时。一想到面子理念，老板一方面会掩盖自己的无能，另一方面又想捍卫自己的地位。他们做出正确决策时面临巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板和专家们随意讨论可行的替代性方案。结果是，老板听取了大量意见，做出了最利于其自身的决策。事实上，功劳属于那些默默献言的专家们。此举促进了相关人员间的人情往来。一旦老板制定并传达某个决策，员工们考虑到公司等级结构，便毫无异议地执行。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
<br />
Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
<br />
The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
<br />
1. Hong Kong <br />
<br />
2. China<br />
<br />
3. USA<br />
<br />
4. Germany<br />
<br />
当下级认为某个上级的决定是错误的，他可能不会告知老板。然而，当层级结构不能适应（共同的休闲活动或类似问题上），下级就会寻求机会间接地将错误的决定传递给老板。<br />
<br />
每天的会议 C> USA> D<br />
<br />
中国开会的频率比德国高的多。对所选的4个国家或地区的顺序排名如下：<br />
<br />
1. 香港<br />
<br />
2. 中国<br />
<br />
3. 美国<br />
<br />
4. 德国<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
<br />
[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
<br />
1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化的形式及其原因<br />
<br />
专业技术：羞耻/ 防卫/ 大卫对抗歌利亚一样/ 基于国家利益的工业间谍活动 专业技术盗窃<br />
<br />
创新：<br />
<br />
竞争：<br />
<br />
国家管控：<br />
<br />
法律：<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化有以下的特征：<br />
<br />
1. 在专业技术领域，中国落后于西方工业国家和日本，这让中国人民感到羞耻。许多中国人认为自己处于守势，中国与美国、日本的关系就像大卫对抗歌利亚一样，也因此将基于广义国家利益的工业间谍活动和专门技术盗窃视为合理。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
<br />
China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
<br />
The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
<br />
中国历来以发明帝国著称，所以活版印刷、火药、瓷器等发明的时间比世界上其他地方的类似发明要早得多。然而，这些发明往往不是批量生产的，而是大规模生产的，例如在欧洲，火药促使了手枪和大炮的生产。可以夸张地说，火药被贵族们用来代替新年的烟花。这显示了中国特色，即创新能力与市场推广能力同时不足。<br />
在很大程度上工业革命也与中国擦肩而过。因为中国和欧洲一样，由于卫生和医疗条件的改善，人口激增，但与此同时，食品生产的自动化并没有超越制造业，中国的生活水平落后了。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:01, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模仿几乎和原创一样重要。因此，前几世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校体制都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个原因可能就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模本几乎和原本一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校系统都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个证据就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿在中国一直很受重视。 一份好的副本几乎和原件一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和今天的学校制度都强烈倾向于再生产，而不是创造。其中一个原因可能是人物数量众多，需要学生长年累月的记忆。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
<br />
When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
<br />
中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与西方相比，中国的版权观念不那么根深蒂固。<br />
当第一次鸦片战争的炮声把中国人从睡梦中惊醒的时候，他们没有进行自己的研究和开发是非常遗憾的。即使中国人可以忽略外国侵略者的暴力，但却羡慕他们的技术优势，从那时起，他们开始宣传向外国人学习技术并加以复制，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和主权。这种嫉妒感产生了一种极端的动机，既模仿别人的优越感，又最终超越别人。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
<br />
The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
<br />
Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
<br />
The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
<br />
At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
1978年以来的改革开放政策导致20世纪末外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为了保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业必须在当地提供一定比例的产品。因此，他们必须寻找能够向生产链提供零部件的中国供应商。这促进了当地工业的发展，也促进了技术的转让。<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 10:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. 国家管控'''<br />
<br />
1978年改革开放以来，直到20世纪末，外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业生产产品必须有一定比例的当地产品。因此，这些公司必须寻找中国的供应商以为生产链提供零部件，这促进了当地产业发展和技术转让。<br />
<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这进一步加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
<br />
'''5. Legal system'''<br />
<br />
The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
<br />
Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry.<br />
<br />
然而，法规（例如，合资企业法）以及法庭判决都有利于国内企业。中国也已经建立起一种国家资本主义，用来资助企业、支持出于世界市场中的国内企业、为海外投资提供资助。除此之外，版权侵权法规和企业情报刺探（包括军民联合）都促使中国经济发展。在特朗普的治理下，美国提出了“美国第一”的保护主义策略，以此作为回应。<br />
<br />
'''5.法律体系'''<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系不是彼此独立，互不相关的。它是应整个国家的要求而实行的。<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的财政实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但是同时觉得这些公司会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:03, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系并非独立存在，而是顺应国家需要而实行的。<br />
<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的经济实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但又怕它们会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 04:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
<br />
This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
<br />
'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``必要是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
效率提高的原因是，为全世界所熟知的日式管理文化或生产文化，在第二次世界大战后，缺乏资金购置新机器。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``需求是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
在第二次世界大战后，日本缺乏资金购置新机器从而导致了效率的提高，这也是众所周知的日式管理文化或生产文化。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
<br />
In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
<br />
The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
<br />
专业能力往往起不到任何作用。但这也发生了一代人的变化;最初，中央委员会的最高领导干部没有在苏联接受过教育或培训；20世纪80年代他们被技术官僚取代了；在21世纪初，他们中的许多人拥有美国大学学位。<br />
<br />
在商业领域，中国最大国有企业的领导干部仍由党授予。<br />
<br />
管理者们在职业上的无能产生了一种困境，如果你不想被一个更有专业能力的管理者取代，就必须在日常工作中采用一种复杂的策略去应对。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
<br />
·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
<br />
·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
<br />
·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
<br />
This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships.<br />
<br />
该战略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司的专家进行非正式协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
该策略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司真正的专家进行非正式的协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:49, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
<br />
A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二人的第三人，第二人随后只建立联系，然后退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于困乏的工业革命和市场缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有形成自己的研发传统。他们没有长期进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿并最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二个人的第三人，而第二个人只是建立联系，然后就退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于工业革命停滞不前，市场上缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有建立起自己的研发传统。在很长一段时间里，研究者们没有进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿他们，最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
<br />
“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
在中国生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。在过去的几十年中，它们已经习惯与废料一同出售。 由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废品。 外国投资者首先必须在中国重申质量保证理念。 由于中国的激烈竞争以及对世界市场价格和标准的遵循，质量保证现已在中国内部化。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球工业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。几十年里，他们已经习惯了和废品一起销售。由于劳动力成本低，第一批在中国生产商品的工厂也相应地交付了次品。外国投资者首先不得不在中国重新引入质量保证概念。由于中国市场的激烈竞争和对世界市场价格和标准的追求，质量保证在中国已经内化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
<br />
In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
<br />
通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
<br />
In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
与这些运动类似，这些概念的引入具有恒久的主张，但只风靡了小段时间。 这种基于当前管理战略趋势的管理模式，也可以称为游击管理，遵循韩博天的“游击政治”概念。<br />
在中国，保密文化（代表证、访问限制）是普遍存在的，尤其是在高科技公司中，这与美国完全相同。 在中国，这种文化只是简单的从美国复制而来，当然也是因为中国在国外的工业间谍活动的发现，例如技术。 在德国公司中，往往得不到充分的保护，不受第三方的访问。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:50, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
在所有这些行为中，面孔意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)，这主要是由于生产压力高导致的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:22, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
在所有这些行为中，面子意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力，主要是因为生产压力高。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:59, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点就在于，即使已经成年了，年轻人仍然可以快乐的玩耍，别人也不会认为他们很可笑。如果野心是尽可能地模仿外国产品甚至是超越它并投入实施，例如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学，那么玩的乐趣是无拘无束的。<br />
新的游戏规则很快被接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经导致了一种问题：当这个机制需要改变的时候总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点是：即使已经成年了，他们仍然玩得滑稽可笑，但他们自己却不会使人觉得很荒唐。如果他们是立志于效仿国外同样的产品甚至是超越它并将如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学等投入实施，那么玩的乐趣就无穷无尽。<br />
<br />
新的游戏规则很快就被人们所接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经造成一种局面：当需要改变的时候，总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的积极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•网络<br />
<br />
•中国企业的优惠待遇（例如在投标、竞争中，在合资企业等企业集团内）<br />
<br />
•对科技的狂热<br />
<br />
•残酷，这反过来又促进了竞争<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的消极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•扭曲竞争<br />
<br />
•助长管理职位的不称职<br />
<br />
•优先个人利益而不是非现金利益，从根本上来说对生产文化是消极的<br />
<br />
•仪式/惯例（面子、批评、地位等）<br />
<br />
•不透明的国家赞助和腐败--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
2020年设立的由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家组成的的自由贸易区，与建议设立的由美国或者欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同是，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在哪些方面可以作为管理和产业文化的国际标杆？'''<br />
<br />
由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家在2020年设立的自由贸易区，与建议由美国或欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同在于，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在管理和产业文化在哪些方面可以称为国际标杆？'''--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人在公司中的等级地位无关紧要，只有他们的专业能力。对最有能力的人提出质疑是可能的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉和奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行的世界，即所谓的个人关系系统中。由于这种脱钩，负责任的决策者并不介意质疑其他不负责任但更有能力的同事/员工/外人。同时，同事/员工/外部人员也有动力给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他可以在平行世界中得分。<br />
<br />
结果是有理有据，被接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人与其在公司的级别地位是不相关的，与之相关的仅仅是他的能力。质疑最有能力的人是可取的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行世界，即所谓的人际关系系统中。基于关系系统的分离，决策者也就不介意质疑其他不负责任但是能力更强的同事、员工或者外人。同时，这些人也会更有动力去给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他们会在这个平行世界中得分。<br />
最终得到有理有据并且可以接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other. <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression.<br />
<br />
我们要重点注意以下三个方面：<br />
1、最终目标的实现不能否定其他方面的工作，甚至恶化整个大局，因为同事们都沉迷于游戏。新型的管理或生产策略在中国员工看来都是见怪不怪了，他们从政治或教育运动（如交通教育）中了解到这一点。<br />
二要牢记理解相关哲学。说这一点重要，是因为当重要的西方管理文化进入中国时，正确的中文术语应首要出现以顺应潮流，比如英式表达。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但重要的是要注意这三个方面：<br />
1.实际的目标应该在不忽视工作的其他方面的情况下实现，因为同事们都沉迷于玩乐会使整体的结果恶化。对中国员工来说，引入新的管理或生产策略并不是什么新鲜事，他们从政治或教育导向的活动（如交通教育）中已经了解到这一点。必须牢记的第二个方面是对相应的哲学方面的理解，这一点很重要，例如，在向中国引进西方管理文化时，最重要的是首先找到正确的中文术语，如英式表达。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees.<br />
<br />
翻译不正确或根本没有翻译的术语会带来成功信息，即引入了一个新系统，而引入了该系统所理解的内容。<br />
<br />
在这情形下必须考虑的第三个方面是可持续性。许多引入的新概念在几周后就被遗忘而老一套又回来了。只有个别的，通常是高级员工还记得新引进的东西，偶尔也会提到，但不能强加在他们的员工身上。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译错误或根本没有翻译的术语也会有所成果，其引入了一个新系统，并引入了该系统所理解的内容。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，可持续性是必须考虑的第三个方面。许多引入的新概念在几周后就为人们所遗忘，取而代之的是重蹈覆辙的老一套概念。只有个别人，通常是高层还记得新引进的东西，他们偶尔也会提起，但却无法强迫他们的员工也记得。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
与工作日程（例如日常使用的计算机工作界面）相结合的过程描述系统非常有用，员工可以按照给定的路径来制定或执行决策或流程。<br />
<br />
总而言之，游戏化的方法减少了接触新鲜事物的恐惧，工作日程多样化，员工也能进一步获得资格。<br />
<br />
3.产品开发的速度和灵活性<br />
<br />
中国制造业的一个标志是产品加工和发展的速度之快，以及它们对不断变化的客户要求或市场条件作出的快速反应。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
将过程描述系统集成到日常工作程序中(例如，日常使用的计算机工作界面)在这里是有用的，在这里雇员在给定的路径中制定或执行决策和过程。<br />
总而言之，这种好玩的方式减少了人们对接触新事物的恐惧，每天的工作日程变得多样，员工们也获得了更多的资格证书。<br />
“‘3。产品开发的速度和灵活性"<br />
中国制造业的特点之一是产品被抄袭和进一步开发的速度，或者它们对不断变化的客户要求或市场条件作出反应的速度。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:46, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。处在本国相对迟缓的生产环境下的西方企业可以落户中国来学习这些品质，并从这些经验中获益。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:07, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
<br />
最初的特征物流。正如这张图片所示，现有的原始手段被开发到了极致，能够驾驭极端的自然方式最令人钦佩。<br />
<br />
过去很长一段时间，中国的生产力比物流发展更快。到21世纪初期，快递业务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才追赶上来。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
原始功能是物流。如图所示，现有的原始手段得到最大限度的利用。令人钦佩的是控制极端情况的过程方法。<br />
<br />
长期以来，中国的生产能力快于物流业的发展。在21世纪初，送货服务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才开始迎头赶上。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German. <br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany. <br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
<br />
来自中国大陆、台湾、英国以及德国的14位研究中国文学的学者参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中令人着迷的表达。语言没有边界：大会虽用英文举行，但也破例宣读了部分含有英文摘要的中文论文。<br />
<br />
按照大会的流程，这些论文中的一部分会组成一本文集。这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版，在2000年由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能进行实时邮件讨论，并且能在网站上看到不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
来自美国、中国台湾、英国和德国的14位中国文学领域的学者都参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中有趣的现象。语言无边界：大会除了部分论文是含有英文摘要的中文论文之外，其余都是用英文展开的。<br />
<br />
会议过程中的论文选集发到人们手中，这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版。在2000年12月由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能借助邮件展开激烈的讨论，并且能在网站上获取不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
<br />
这本书中含有大部分会议所用论文，因此，欢迎每位与会者给出反馈。我第一次进行这种自由的学术交流是在美国，当时李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者到哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习，时长为1998到1999年。这期期刊的撰写者只能吸引中国读者的注意力，但阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:28, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
本书中有大部分的会议论文，欢迎大家给予反馈。我第一次体验这种自由的知识交流是在美国，当时是1998年到1999年，李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者留在哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习。<br />
<br />
本书的编者只能介绍这种中式体裁和吸引读者对这种中式体裁的注意，而阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:<br />
<br />
中国散文的繁荣发展<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
加速建设现代化时期、西学东渐时期（1920至1930年代）、经济解放之一时期（1980至1990年代）论文出版出现繁荣发展。这在一定程度上得益于新的杂志和丛书的出现，它们主要被用作当代散文家的工具。这种媒介的出现表现出明显的趋势：于中国作者和读者而言，论文是一种压制和增长兴趣的媒介类型。<br />
<br />
在1990年代中期，中国的论文产量和受欢迎程度上升的三个原因是：--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
·a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
20世纪最后20年中，小品文成了知识分子和那些读日报的普罗大众沟通的主要媒介，由此，这种文学体裁开始以小篇幅和通用语将精英分子的思想传播开来，成为了大众文化和精英文化间的纽带。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在二十世纪最后二十年中，小品文成了知识分子话语圈和日报读者群的主要沟通媒介。因此，我们拥有了一种文学体裁，这种体裁能用小篇幅传播精英分子的思想，也能充当大众文化和精英文化之间的纽带。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:43, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
主题:“让我们给这篇文章在中国文学中指定一个合适的位置!”<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学历史叙事，勾勒出了一幅中国文学的不完整图景:缺乏散文的体裁。我们习惯于C.T. Hsia， Průšek,和Anderson建立的叙事学，这让中国文学在小说的面前显得黯然失色。民国初期，五四运动确立了主导叙事之后，小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，使后者得到了重视。<br />
<br />
我将列举几点原因来解释为什么散文实际上在数量上如小说和诗歌一样多，以及为什么它应该被高度重视。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:36, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
这篇文章对整个中国社会产生了直接的影响。散文体裁的影响，它的直接语言，它与生活的联系，以及它通过报纸直接与个人读者接触，比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。<br />
这篇文章还比诗歌和小说更能反映社会趋势。个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，这在内容和形式上都是有限的。短小的散文体现了短暂的生命力，可以在上班的地铁上阅读，在那里，诗歌可能不会如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
这篇文章对中国社会有着直接的历史影响。散文体裁以其简明的语言，与生活的联系，能以报纸为媒介直接影响到作为个体的读者，它比小说或诗歌所产生的间接影响更大。<br />
比起诗歌和小说，这篇文章更能反映社会趋势。相较于诗歌在内容和形式上的受限，散文能将个人主义更直接地表现出来。短小精悍的散文体现了快餐文化，在上班的地铁上也方便阅读，然而诗歌却不大可能如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
<br />
•与诗歌相比，论文占人口的比例更大，不需要花大量时间阅读小说。论文本身是一种高度现实的类型，即使不仅仅是今天的类型。<br />
<br />
•论文的产量超过小说的产量。<br />
<br />
如果考虑到这篇论文，中国文学的图画能否保持不变？ 如上所述，论文的真实价值与当前价值之间存在很大的反差。让我们为论文分配适当的位置！--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
散文比诗歌更受欢迎，也不像小说一样要花大量时间阅读。如果散文不只是一种当代体裁的话，那么它本身也是一种高度现实性的体裁。<br />
•散文的产量超过了小说的产量。<br />
如果我们把散文考虑进去，那么中国文学的版块能保持不变吗?如上所述，在散文的真实价值和当前价值之间存在很大差别。让我们正确看待散文吧!--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
'''未知的体裁'''<br />
<br />
由20世纪选集和文集讲述的文学历史叙事所绘画出的中国文学图景并不完整：即散文体裁的缺失。长期以来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）忽视了这种体裁的优点：然而，自从五四运动确立主叙事、民国初期重视小说文学和创作通俗化以来，散文的兄长--小说就一直受到珍视。现代选集会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学作品的支柱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:10, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
···未知体裁···<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所记叙的文学史，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景：散文的体裁是缺乏的。长期以来，散文作为一种功利性文体被忽视（马格里斯1949年，施寒微1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年）；而它的兄长--小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作白话化以来，在五四运动确立的总叙事之后，一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信，诗歌、小说、戏剧三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:12, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
20世纪文学选集对于中国文学史的叙述是不完整的，其中缺失了散文这一体裁。长期起来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）地忽视了这一出色的体裁，但与此同时，由于五四运动树立起了以叙事为主的创作风格，到民国初期发展为重视小说体裁和通俗化创作，散文的兄长--小说，则一直受到重视。而现代文选则告诉读者，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学的支柱。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
其对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年出版的《中国现代文学思想》一书中有所体现。散文体裁的影响，其直接的语言，它与生活的联系(例如，它在与文化大革命的适应中所起的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触到个人读者。这种影响比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。这首诗是一种逃避社会生活，逃避政治问题和时间的文体。<br />
胡适认为，在现代性的进程中，诗歌是最重要的，因为诗歌引起了情感。但它也依赖于图像和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏剧在社会变迁中的作用。但三文却能给事物命名，它反映了生命，宛如万花筒。现代主体性是以三文为工具建构的。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
<br />
散文也比诗歌和小说更好地反映了社会潮流:个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，但在内容和形式上都有一定的局限性。短暂性体现在短文的简短形式上，人们可以在上班的地铁上读到这些短文，而在地铁里，人们可能不会那么自然地欣赏诗歌。<br />
<br />
阅读散文的人比读诗歌的人多，花在阅读小说上的时间也可以追溯到过去。散文本身是一种高度现实性的体裁，如果不只是当今的体裁的话。<br />
<br />
这篇文章告诉我们更多的是关于一个作家和他的时代而不是小说或诗歌，因为在这种体裁中，我们可以不受韵律限制地见到作者本人。我们以真实的眼光看待他所处的当代社会。许多作家在他们生命的后期开始从事散文写作，如鲁迅、巴金和王孟。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:11, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”制作量超过“小说”制作量：从十九世纪七十年代起，中国报纸（申报，时报等等。梁启超认为报纸的作用既自由又权威：一方面，他认为新闻媒体是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他赞成审查制度。）作为20世纪初期的大众传播媒介，报纸以序列化形式仅展示一个或两个虚构的故事，不过它发明了杂文专栏，如“杂感 ”（鲁迅从中发展了他的杂文），和“ 随笔”或“ 随想”（从其中衍生出像巴金的《穗香路》这样的著名收藏）。<br />
<br />
让我们为杂文指定适当的位置<br />
<br />
必须从以上提出的杂文价值与评价之间的对比中得出以下结论：让我们为散文指定适当的位置！<br />
<br />
重新考虑杂文将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
我仅举几例来说明杂文对中国文学的贡献，迄今为止，由于C.T. Hsia, Prçšek and Anderson等人的叙述，小说的光芒盖过了杂文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 04:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
<br />
我们习惯于建立叙事，例如《五四》文学的出现和成功. 但是这种观点忽视了这种作用，例如，在本世纪初的激烈的学术辩论中，元阳护蝶排在不同声音的合唱团中扮演了角色. 当时的五四分之一小组是众人之中的一个声音，只有在公共领域中它的激动和争论才得以成功，因此我们必须使用新的手段来将中文论文分配给自己的位置. 我们从简化的叙述中学到，区分和重建复杂的时间背景是绝对必要的. 对中国文学的理解仅取决于小说和诗歌的发展，而更广泛的理解将改变中国文学的整体面貌. 学术上的努力是在这种类型的方法中使用现代文学理论.<br />
石迪文石迪文[编辑]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 18:13, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
从一开始，人们就认为散文的价值低于诗歌:最古老的参考文献[这比在Morohashi, 5:529a /连续页数5167a，和在中国语言的百科词典，第73卷/ s.p.c. 6137c中提到的更古老。)“散文”这个术语,我发现是罗大经提出(?- 1248年之后):“詩騷妙天下,而散文頗覺瑣碎局促”。诗歌以一种美妙的方式感化人类，散文则是不连贯的杂谈，影响有限。罗大经 14: Baihai: 1)。罗大经提出的另一种质疑则更为正式:与具有高度艺术性和百年历史的诗歌创作传统相比，在他看来，直接的、通常是白话的散文没有什么价值。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:19, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
<br />
在西方，真正的“文章写作的艺术”于16世纪被提出来作为新的重组知识的媒介。这种重新组织来源于哥白尼的观察，这摧毁了中世纪的所有观念。<br />
<br />
在中国，特别是公元四、五世纪对佛教的争论，导致了文学这一传统的起源。然而，中国的“散文(essay)”传统中，对“散”的理解即为驱散、空余、松散、放松、不规则的又自由的风格，在从对话中剥离出来之前不为人知的自由性散文诗或是仍能够在哲学书籍《论语》中见到的谚语。荀子通过他的哲学性论述确立了后来的散文雏形。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
2.散文作为现代媒介<br />
散文是20世纪初现代化社会的一种体裁。它篇幅短，内容贴近现实且没有限制。因此它也能够记录和传播社会最好的形态思想。这是向公众传递时代知识领袖的思想最好的形式，也创造一个公共领域。想象一下没有散文的五四运动吧!想象一下鲁迅的大部分作品都不是散文！<br />
为了应对战争和军阀主义，许多作家不得不定义和重新定义他们的地位和自我理解，并且在后来的现代化社会中，他们通常埋没自己的理想, 从更大的角度看待那些被作者声称是散文产物之一的社会“需求”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
<br />
但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
<br />
我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
<br />
In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
<br />
中国散文是源于本土传统？还是产自西方翻译？这个问题一直是个争议。但无论如何，这两种说法本身就具关联性：自1907年起直至现在，中国散文的体裁形式主要出自西方的散文译本。从这一点来看，中国散文自发展伊始就一直在语言、形式和术语上借鉴西方模式。后来，中国散文的推行者无奈只能仅仅诉诸于中国历史来证明中国本土散文的渊源。五四运动中涌现的传奇作家认为英语散文是中国散文的起源。但之后其中一些作家改变观念，通过证明中国散文自成一家来支撑自己的散文理论。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too.<br />
<br />
这是第一次，不仅可以记录事件，从而扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一位作者传达给另一位作者或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记就此写下了。由于那时缺少珍贵的书写材料，所以用了书卷的边边角角。时至今日，我们在早期欧洲（例如古希腊）和中国的书卷上都能找到这些笔记。这些笔记是个人对于阅读文本的想法、第三方读者对于未知地方和事件的解释、对于不清晰文本段落的解释，对看似书写错误的字符的替代字符，有时只是用来构思文本的标记符号。学校也用这些笔记符号来作为课本来教授学生阅读。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:24, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第一次，不仅可以记录事件，扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一个作者传递给另一个或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记由此形成。由于缺乏珍贵的书写材料，书卷的空白处便用来填笔记。时至今日，我们仍然可以在欧洲早期（如古希腊）以及中国的书卷上找到这些笔记。它们是个人对文本的解读，包括为第三读者对其陌生的地点、事件以及晦涩的文本段落作出解释，订正看似写错的字符，有时是为了划分文本结构，这些笔记也被学校用作教授阅读的课本。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 00:15, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader.<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的起源。在欧洲，它们被称为“旁注”、“边注”，在中国被称为“笔记”（biji筆記，或临时记录）。它们在明朝盛极一时。它们可以是私人的史料、轶事、谈话和沉思。然而，作为一种特有的体裁，人们有散文意识的时候已经是清朝过后了，当时已有大量的散文选集被编撰出来。<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的出处。在欧洲，它们被称为“边注”，“旁注”，在中国被称为“笔记”(biji筆記，或“偶注”)。它们在明朝很兴盛，可以包含私人的历史笔记、轶事、交流和沉思。然而，“自成一种”的散文意识并非起源于中国清代，当时已编撰了大量的散文选集。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
所有这些散文术语，以及蒙田创造出的“随笔”这个词本身，即“尝试，试图”，都反映出散文短暂的、主观的、边缘化的特点。这个词本身就带有轻描淡写的意思，尤其是当你想表达主观的个人想法时又为了不让读者觉得自己很有学究气的时候就更显得具有实质性。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
这篇文章的另一个特点是折衷主义，即在阅读原文时，学者们经常联想与其他文章的引述和联系之处，因而有许多注释没有标注对其他作品的引用。<br />
<br />
In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.<br />
<br />
1977年罗伯特·施莱特发展出边际主义美学说，1996年克劳斯·彼得·菲弗进一步完善该学说，这有助于对这篇文章的特征进行理解。从方法论的角度上来说，边际主义给作者提供了从书本白边回溯到文本本身的宏大视角。施莱特认为，只有政见不同，边际主义才得以存在。边际主义是在阅读过程中留给读者的私人发展空间。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
<br />
Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
<br />
In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
<br />
这是批评和抗议的必要条件。 边缘主义的读者就是带有批判性阅读文章的人。 同样，蒙田（Montaigne）视自己为边缘主义者（Ulke，31-38）。<br />
<br />
现在让我们用边缘主义的概念来研究20世纪中国的论文。 在这里，我以鲁迅的论文为例。 离题是鲁迅在其论文中的修辞手段之一。 题外话与边缘主义和散文主义密切相关：<br />
<br />
鲁迅在他的一些论文中偏离了他的实际主题。 这种现象在他晚期的文章中有所增加。 在威尔珀特之后，离题是有关于怀疑意识和警告信号的一种表达的可能性，即某些事情出错了。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
<br />
1, digression on purpose<br />
<br />
In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
<br />
沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了与他同时代的陈希英的批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这种边缘主义与中国的王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，正如鲁迅在《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在《无常，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)一文中改变了他对同时代的陈西滢的评判。在《24孝图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他反对“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用回忆性和自传体散文来呼吁白话的日常和政治的价值.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
2, not targeted digression<br />
<br />
In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
<br />
3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
<br />
2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这是一篇长篇散文，其中再次历史性地描述了活无常和死有分这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于这个文章出现在脚注里的问卷来说，该问卷的主题与经典探讨的主题严重偏离。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这一长篇散文再次历史性地描述了黑白无常这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于在这篇文章脚注中出现问卷，其主题与经典探讨的主题出现了严重偏离。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
<br />
In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
<br />
5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
<br />
Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
<br />
4、社会批判的一面打击了边缘主义<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他调侃的事情，别人都在解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是一种效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:39, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4、边缘主义本身就带有社会批判的一面<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他取笑的事情，别人都解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:14, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
<br />
Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
<br />
'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为不论是过去还是将来，中国人都想成为永远的奴隶。在自传体散文《无关紧要的回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习。散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
中国教科书中出现了一种看似无法打破“文言散文”的中国传统（于在春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。中国学者对中国传统散文写作的价值和西方对其影响仍有争议。一些人承认西方的影响对当今我们理解中国散文十分重要。（王斌，1992年,范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）。其他学者认为西方的影响被高估了。1996年丹顿表明中国缺少理解西方文学理论的理论背景，建议我们首先按照本国传统理解散文。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:49, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
汉语教科书中出现了一种看似完整的“文言散文”中国传统（于再春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。然而，学者们对中国传统散文的价值以及西方对其影响仍有争议。有些人承认，西方的影响在我们现在所理解的中国散文中十分关键。(王斌,1992年，范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）也有学者认为西方的影响被高估了。在1996年，丹顿指出，中国缺少理解西方文学的理论背景，并建议我们首先基于民族传统来理解散文。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay).<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家转变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证据，来支持散文中本人的理论：比如，鲁迅及其理论——“展开”说与”萌芽“论——视金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，但是他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与“英国小说‘合成’论”之中。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:31, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家改变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找一种中国本土散文传统的证据，来支撑自己的散文理论：比如，在鲁迅及其“展开说”与“萌芽论”中，将金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征视为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，尽管他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与英国小品“合成”论中。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的许多作家都可以被称为传奇，他们演绎着个人的观点对叙述史实有多大的影响。所以作家都认为英文文章是中文文章的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾五四运动时期文学作品里的中国传统文化没有留下，当代文学作品中也没有体现，中国文学主要是用来学习的，人们主要是通过查阅其来证明其中的理论。你可以找到每一时期每个话题的例子，因为文章海纳百川。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的传奇作家可以告诉我们个人观点对史实阐述而产生的影响有多大。这些作家都认为英国散文是中国散文的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾，在五四运动时期文学作品中中国传统文化没有占据一席之地，在当代文学作品中也没有得到传承。中国文学适合用来学习研究，因为人们可以通过查阅来证明文章中的理论。正是因为文章海纳百川，所以你可以找到任何时期任何话题的范例。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
由于痴迷于第一人称的叙述，它混合了日记，情诗，自传和新闻报道这些体裁。我认为 20世纪初对《蝴蝶》这种主观体裁的痴迷为中国现代散文打下了基础。<br />
作品中的戏剧手段在叙述空间中创造出了双重自我- 身为表演者的自我和旁观者眼中的自我。本文强调戏剧性的修辞得益于传统诗歌和戏剧，当20世纪20年代新文学成为主流时传统诗歌和戏剧就退出了舞台。<br />
此外，我将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建立一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设划分之上的早期的民国主体性。 --[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
“黄昏是一天中有预兆的时刻”<br />
“遗忘之夜，却似乎延缓了时间本身，”<br />
“一种中间的状态，在这种状态下，可能是白天的最后一丝阳光”<br />
“仍在上演它的终极奇迹。”<br />
Andreas Huyssen。<br />
《暮光之城》的记忆”<br />
本文通过对中国现代“散文”起源的探究，开辟了20世纪初文学现代性的“朦胧记忆”区，这一“朦胧记忆”区最近一直困扰着中国现代文学领域。从现代汉语的“文章”或“散文”来看，我们如何定义这一体裁?它之所以现代是因为它使用了“白话”吗?它的“现代”是从被称为“散文”开始的吗?五四通用制度是如何建立的?它对文学史的影响是什么?<br />
自20世纪80年代以来，对“五四”以外的中国文学现代性的探索一直在继续。<br />
在对中国文学现代性的学术反思中，最突出的是Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova对晚清中国现代文学起源的强调(“现代中国文学的起源”，Merle Goldman, ed.，《五四时期的现代中国文学》17-36;世纪之交的小说，Perry Link对鸳鸯蝴蝶小说的开创性研究(《鸳鸯蝴蝶:二十世纪初中国的通俗小说》)，刘子彦对“中庸小说”的倡导，以及最近王大卫对19世纪晚期小说的激动人心的、复杂的解读。在一个更大的背景下，大约在同一时期，这一基本上是北美的学术界从“重写文学史”的理论和实践与《二十世纪中国文学》(陈国秋主编，《中国文学》)的修订，相互影响了迅速变化的中国文学批评。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1990年代后期中国文学舞台上的奇观之一是文华鸭和蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。除了无数版的《蝴蝶小说》在商业上迎合后社会主义都市读者的小说外，还有一些富有同情心的学术评估显然挑战了“五四”教规。自1980年代以来，文学批评的格局迅速变化，标志着批判密码从“革命文学”到“文学现代性”的转变。作为文学现代性的核心价值的“纯文学”（“纯文学”）是由新一代的文学评论家和学者开发的，并与后社会主义的环境am昧地联系在一起：一方面，文学批评是在学术上制度化并在某些智力权威上实践；另一方面，“纯文学”怀疑它的现代主义诗学，这暗示着对现状的颠覆力量。<br />
<br />
在最近几年中，出现了大约十二本经过学术界编辑的蝴蝶文学系列，更不用说其他许多用于商业目的的汇编了。仅举几例：范伯群主编，《中国近代通俗作》《平传丛书》（南京：南京市出版社，1994）；范伯群和范子江，主编，《 yang阳呼迪-李白柳排经编小说说文库》（南京：江苏文艺出版社，1996）。魏绍昌主编，Yuan阳护蝶派立派刘小硕。 （天津：春风文艺出版社，1997）；于润奇编，《清末民初小说集》（北京：中国文联出版公司，1997）。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:47, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
二十世纪九十年代末中国文坛的一个奇观是鸳鸯蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。为了迎合后社会主义城市读者的需求，蝴蝶派小说进行了无数次的再版，还有一些富有同情心的读者也对此重新做出评价，这显然是对五四文学主义发起了挑战。20世纪80年代以来，迅速变化的文学批评格局标志着批判原则从 "革命文学 "转变为 "文学现代性 "。"纯文学"作为文学现代性的核心价值，是由新一代文学批评家和学者发展起来的，并与后社会主义条件下的文学批评进行了暧昧的交锋：一方面，文学批评在学术上被制度化，并由某些权威学者实行；另一方面，"纯文学 "对其现代主义诗学持怀疑态度，意味着它具有对现状的颠覆性力量。[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
<br />
如今，五四学派与蝴蝶学派之间的区别不在于“革命与反动”或“进步与后退”，而在于“雅”（优雅的精英主义）与“俗”（具有共同性的平民主义）方面的讨论。 蝴蝶奖学金以“大众”的名义开辟了一个批判空间，但其代价是高昂的：他们的庇护者只能通过遵守五四文学现代性的规范来获得推崇。 如果说文学现代性的基础（进步的历史或民族文学的前提）仍然是不容置疑的，那么蝴蝶学者只能屈居下等。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
<br />
See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
<br />
<br />
例如，早在1960年代初魏绍昌发表了具有开创性的鸳鸯蝴蝶派书目，使这一派别的研究成为可能。最近他对“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”重新进行了评价，将其亲切地称为“美丽的帽子”。然而，这种隐喻却暗示着五四作家对鸳鸯蝴蝶派扣上“帽子”的再一次辩护。因此，魏先生坚称，哪怕是取得成功的最出色的鸳蝶派作品，论才智，论美学，他们都无法与鲁迅，茅盾和其他现代文学巨人媲美。<br />
此外，到目前为止，人们对鸳蝶派的学术兴趣从未超越小说。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:10, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
<br />
Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1997年，《鸳鸯蝴蝶派文章汇编》（Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi）八卷本丛书出版，蝴蝶文章出现了新的主张。这套丛书在书名中暗含着与五四典籍相抗衡的意思，因为它让人想起了1935年出版的著名的《中国现代文学纲要》十卷本，成为五四文学的不朽之作。这本《蝴蝶散文汇编》的主编袁锦在序言中断言，五四时期之前蝴蝶在散文创作上已经取得了很大的成就。<br />
袁进，《鸳鸯湖底派三文大义》。1909-1949 (上海：东方楚岸中新，1997) 3-4。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 12:37, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
<br />
The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre.<br />
<br />
尽管在20世纪20年代以后，他们大多数都逐渐接受了五四作家用的“散文”这个新概念，他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承着传统文学，尤其是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁强调这些文章的主题和美学要素“体现着现代生活，私人感情，和品位，”他认为蝴蝶散文的文学性和文化都有着自己的来源。<br />
《新文学纲要》起着连接伟大作品的作用，它体现了经典是如何通过定义一种文学流派而形成的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
虽然20世纪20年代以后，他们中的大多数人逐渐接受了“五四”作家有关“散文”的新观念，但他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承传统文学，特别是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁着重指出，《蝴蝶随笔》具有“代表日常生活、私人情感和情趣”的主题和审美特征，并认为《蝴蝶随笔》有其独特的文学和文化根源。《新文学纲要》起着连接“卓越”的作用，因为它展示了经典作品是如何通过定义一种流派而形成的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 05:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
<br />
At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
<br />
For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
<br />
“五四文学运动是现代中国散文形式的诞生地”这一观点至今仍在流行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫(1896-1945)和周作人(1885-1968)在为《纲要》分别编撰的“三文”选集的引言中，对现代散文的一种真实定义进行了解释。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系（如胡适与鲁迅的关系，茅盾与郁达夫的关系），则毁于政治争论，或个人的争吵与侮辱。然而，所有这些，都不妨碍他们在一起创造新的文学神话。他们不可能再回到从前，然而这个巨大的工程无疑给他们每个人提供了作为文学大师重塑五四历史的机会。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:06, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系(例如胡适和鲁迅的关系，茅顿和郁达夫的关系)被政治争论、个人争吵和侮辱所破坏。然而，这一切并没有阻止他们共同创造一个新的文学神话。他们不太可能回到过去的日子，但这个宏大的计划无疑让他们每个人都成为了重塑五四历史的文学大师。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
<br />
妥协是必要的，但事实上，《纲要》不能轻易地作为一个整体加以评估，因为所包括的都是杂七杂八的内容，并且在内容和形式上都有冲突。正如大多数编辑所说，使用白话是新文学的标志，但他们在排除蝴蝶派和上海派(haipai)的共识上有一些缺陷，因为这两个派也用白话文写作;相反，这种排除暗含了对城市主义的道德偏见。毫无疑问，人们作出了巨大的集体努力来重建“新”的概念，这个概念本身至少在理论上是权威的，它与进步的历史、人道主义的普遍性和乌托邦的未来相结合。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
<br />
As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
<br />
正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
<br />
正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代论文的特点时，于强调了论文家在个人，自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代散文的特点时，于强调了散文家在个人、自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:00, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
<br />
尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
<br />
郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
郁和周都认为这种现代化的通用体系是理所当然的。 在周看来，散文代表着新文学的最佳成就，这是因为散文能够以多样，复杂的技巧和风格，展现最广泛的生活画面和个人情感和思考，最终与小说和戏剧相比较也是成功的。 周的不满体现在他追溯现代散文的传统至明晚期的“小品文”，此举表明他亲传统的修正，在五四阵营中是有争议的。 但是他将“散文”视为锶中文体系中不可或缺的一部分，他对形式问题的讨论受到这种系统框架的制约。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:11, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
借由现代化通用体系的这一正典，周和郁都从理性角度来描述散文，定义其语言学与文学特征，以确保散文优越于其他所有体裁。这一断言是基于通用体系的合理性，并且从根本上验证了这一体系是个科学的有机整体。在描述散文的代表性特征时，周用了三个词：“叙述”、“论证”和“表达情感”。而郁则使用了“描绘” "叙述"“说明”和"说理"或"论证"四个词来描绘其特征，更加详尽精致，并且每个词后，在括号里都有其相对等的英文词汇解释。但是郁认为细微不同的阐释也是允许的。以此同时，他也认同其他类别的术语表达，如推理，抒情，描写和记叙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:06, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
在这里，周的“美文”（美文）概念引起了我们的特别关注，因为这涉及到他对该类型的历史推测，但仍暗示了其他观点。 周以时间顺序引用了他发表的文章，展示了他如何孜孜不倦地探索三文作为一种新形式，同时阐述了他自己的体裁理论。 正如他所说的那样，他仍然怀着最初的想法，即论文应与《美文》一样完美，他早在1910年代末就倡导了《美文》。 这种历史追溯似乎不仅是从历史的角度回顾他的见解，事实上，其目的是在新的文化形势下重塑他关于“美学论文”的政治。<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能从自己的记忆中汲取更多的话，他在1935年序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对文学理想的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论写作的意义和使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，他的重要性就体现在这篇长文上。正如他之前所说，这本书揭示了他对“文学性”的最初想法，但更具有启示性的是，这本书在1935年被周忽视了，因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对曾为周所压抑的文学的挖掘，打开了一个“朦胧记忆”的区域，为我的目的服务。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能回忆起更多细节的话，他在1935年所作序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对理想化文学概念的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论文章之义以及其使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，其重要性正如标题所言。这本书揭示了他对美文的最初想法，但令人惊喜的是，周的这一观点早在1935年提出过，但却未得到重视。因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对周树人文学经历的挖掘为我展现了一块“暮光记忆”的区域，对本篇文章的论述大有裨益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
<br />
本文从文章、文学、小说三个方面表明了他在文学方面的探索。从某种意义上说，这也是当时名为文学的战场的缩影。在认同文学话语是重塑民族精神最可行的媒介之一这一当代知识分子共识的同时，周试图通过美化“Literature”这一拉丁词文学来构建文学体系。理想的文章体现在艺术和深情的表达上（难怪这篇文章是用古典语言写的）。为了使“文章”这一概念成为一种新的正宗古典主义，他一方面借鉴西方文论对“文章”进行注释，另一方面又对“文章”等其他有影响的词进行了有力的抨击，比如“文学”或“小说”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超“小说”的功利主义倾向，却又欣然接受，甚至将小说与文章相提并论，惟恐文章在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实各自出现过一次，但却被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎和缺乏审美品质，后者则称不上是一个概念。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:54, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超的“小说”功利主义倾向，但又欣然接受，甚至将其等同于文章，惟恐它在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实都出现过一次，但都被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎且缺乏审美品质，后者则算不上是一个概念。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
<br />
Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
<br />
显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
<br />
While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
<br />
寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
梁启超在1899年至1902年发动的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，不同的文学体裁开始出现。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
1899年至1902年，梁启超发起的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，开启出现不同的文学体裁。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
<br />
正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说理论和实践的出现，而非“文”理论和实践的提出。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice.<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。与梁启超的期望相反，“新小说”仍然与其传统相联系；通过新规则的选择与结合，这一传统为“新小说”提供了接受西方文学技法的可能性。也许梁启超和他的追随者创造了这种模棱两可，因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事）。具有讽刺意味的是，尽管它以”复杂,渗透，生动，彻底“宣称人类领域的能力，它也出于自己的喜爱得到了一种全方位的传统文学种类。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。不如梁启超期待的那样，新小说仍与其传统有着千丝万缕的联系；受新规选择、结合，这一传统为新小说吸收西方文学技巧提供了可能。因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事），所以也许是梁启超及其追随者创造了这种模棱两可。讽刺的是，尽管新小说宣称其具有代表人类所涉及领域的能力，该能力具有“复杂性、穿透性、生动性及彻底性”，新小说同样具有几乎所有传统文学有的文学类型，供人们选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 07:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914.<br />
<br />
“新小说”中有种矛盾，即既要带有拯救中国的崇高使命，又要保留迎合大众需求的“闲谈”风格的传统，这两者的矛盾。但“新小说”的风格并没有偏向“闲谈”风格，直到19世纪10年代中期，掀起了一股城市期刊的浪潮，在此期间，“新小说”倾向于有关亲密关系与个人取乐的内容。这是期望与绝望共存的时期，不仅重塑了大众和私人的范围，在社会有关爱情、婚姻和家庭方面的规定上充斥着传统与现代的冲突。对爱情小说也有新的关注，兼带着学习西方以第一人称叙述的期望，例如自传，情书，日记及忏悔。不出意外的，流行杂志与报纸上充斥着悲伤爱情故事，其中包括1914年畅销书作家徐枕雅的《玉梨魂》（1889-1937）。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs.<br />
<br />
这种怪异的组合-悲剧性的浪漫情怀与作者对青年的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-这似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。 吴双热（1884-1934），又是一位以悲剧性的浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“与大话语（“大说”）相对”，新的欲望和社会需求促使他强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:11, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种奇怪的组合-悲剧性的浪漫故事与作者对青春的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。吴双热（1884-1934），一位以悲剧性浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“大篇幅（大说）的对立面”，他受到新欲的望和社会需求的敦促，强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:05, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
<br />
Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超和林纾背后的知识背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人(后来的鲁迅)在日本期间跟随张太炎，受张太炎的影响，周对文学的陈旧看法是建立在这样一种信念之上的，即从更深更广的范围借鉴中国的过去，学习西方，以此防止出现民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超、林纾的学术背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人（后鲁迅）在留日期间追随章太炎，受章太炎的影响，周的古代文学观建立在这样一种信念上：即从中国过去中汲取教训，以更深刻、更广的范围学习西方，可以防止民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:54, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
<br />
周在20世纪10年代中期对以第一人称来叙事进行了细致的尝试。在传统价值观瓦解后，文学成为压抑心理的发泄渠道，同时也重构了情感和观念结构，为重建民族精神铺平了道路。因此，寻求新的文学体裁必然伴随着知识分子的焦虑。当时，周以《星期六》（Libailiu）走红文坛，这是一本旨在娱乐和教育都市读者的周刊，主要以文学愉悦为原则，旨在表达和调节日常生活欲望和消费心理。这种都市印刷文化的繁荣，标志着它与以往致力于爱国主义和民族精神的小说革命发生了逆转；它的表现更多地集中在私人领域和个人身上，揭示了“闲谈”更为鲜明的特征。从这个意义上说，周对第一人称叙事的大量运用是在城市空间中表现一种自主个体的必然，是期刊文化的重要组成部分。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! <br />
<br />
《九花帘幕》出现于1971年由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中，他从一开始就宣布，这本小说月刊旨在推广“百花”小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这个故事被选为典型的蝴蝶作品:内容空洞贫乏，充满无意义的字句。然而，这种偏颇的批评忽略了这篇短篇小说是“百花”小说的先驱，它出现在一本小说杂志上，早在在五四运动之前就主张“百花”。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1971年，《九花帘幕》在由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中出版，他从一开始就宣布这本小说月刊旨在推广白话小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这部小说被评选为一部典型的蝴蝶作品：“（这本小说）内容空洞贫乏，充满了毫无意义的字句。”然而，这种偏颇的批评忽视了这篇短篇小说是白话小说的先驱，在一本小说杂志上出版，在五四运动之前就提倡白话文！--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s.<br />
<br />
杂乱无章的文学体裁，开启了新的可能性，《九花帘》作为一种自我表征，展现了周作人对主观书写的执着，融合了乳品，情书，自白，虚构自传等元素。在这里，我只简单地展示了周小川对自传和情书这两种第一人称叙事的倾注。周小川所采用的这些形式，无论属于当时的“小说”概念，还是更多地属于今天的“三文”标准，都具有一种特定的抒情性和感性魅力，最能吸引周小川。一种类型是指自传的子体裁--风情回忆录--明清情色传统中的一个丰富多彩的分支，以毛翔的《梅影画室回忆录》和蒋坦的《秋灯回忆录》为代表，其中以《梅影画室回忆录》和《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表。周小川在20世纪20年代编辑出版的《回忆录选》中收录了这些文本。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.”<br />
<br />
另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。周因欧文作品《见闻札记》中的创造力和独特性高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏的就是《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过中国文学的窗口了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，一坡一拐而延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡的超然感（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的钢笔变成了反复无常的龙。”--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。其《见闻札记》一书独具创新与独特性，周高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过过去的中国文学窗口来了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，艰难前进而又延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡超然（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的笔变成了反复无常的龙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:40, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''.<br />
<br />
作为1910年代中期描写爱情悲剧的大师，他写了许多短篇故事，并发表在众多期刊和报纸上；其中，那些以第一人称的角度叙述的故事是最好的。他打破了传统爱情故事的语言和抒情方式，他的爱情故事描述了发生在公园、电车、诊所、电影院等新式公共空间的新的城镇主体。更惹人注意的是，他的译作《欧美名家短篇小说丛刊》在1917年出版，揭示了他在嘈杂的环境中处理个人观点的方式。书中所包含的50个故事，其中26个从第一人称的角度进行叙述。有趣的是，在8篇用方言写的文本中，第一人称的代词用的是“wo”，在剩下的18篇用古典语言写的故事中，第一人称的代词多用“yu”“yu”和“wu”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:05, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability.<br />
<br />
白话小说中“我”一词的选择似乎与“五四”文学中确立“ l”作为男性主观性是相同的，但是它们具有不同的现代逻辑。 在鲁迅的作品中也许还有另一种“翻译的现代性”：白话用词"我"在整个选集中不是绝对的。 周对人称代词的使用不仅包括第一人称代词，还包括第二和第三人称代词，表现出文学主体的混乱状态。 他尝试了同时使用白话文和文言文并把它们放在平等的位置，具有多元化的特点。在新的文学情境中，他着迷于多种可能性，更加致力于利用自己的敏感的语言天赋，使用不同的第一人称代词来适应各种表达方式和风格。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:42, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
<br />
范伯群（Fan Boqun）指出，周小川（Zhou Xiaochuan）对现代文学的早期贡献在于心理文学方面，例如日记、书信体小说等，同时，他的翻译对其创作贡献极大。见“朱，卞，易节经得‘文子劳公'：《周守隽（Zhou Shoujuan)评传》”（文学工作者，在写作、编辑、翻译方面取得卓越成就:《周守隽传》），范伯群编:《中国现代通俗作家丛书》第4卷，177页。如果说这本书是周小川迟来的荣誉的话，那么他1917年翻译的欧美著名短篇小说就是他的另一荣耀。上世纪60年代初他给女儿写的信中表明，他1917年的译作受到了鲁迅的赞赏和民国教育局的嘉奖，但是这一点还是他在上世纪50年代初读周作人的回忆录中知晓的。他的文学生涯被批判为反对新文学的反动潮流后，这一信息才透露出来的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
<br />
The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
<br />
莉迪亚·刘指明“I”的第一人称代词“我”的运用作为现代中国文学中翻译现代化的核心问题。随着wo成为通过跨国文化在阻力很大的前进路线上第一人称代词竞赛的唯一胜利者，男性白话主体性得到了确立（见莉迪亚·刘，154-55）。<br />
<br />
《九花帐里》是作者在新婚夜晚对他新娘的情话,他充满激情,带有情绪和自尊地忏悔着他痛苦的过去，同时表达了他对未来夫妻生活的爱和希望。故事以第三人称开始叙述，描述了作者在城市著名的公园之一，也是园的婚礼是如何举行的，在新婚夜里他的朋友聚在新房里如何打趣这对新人的。 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:13, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，其手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，作者为枕边话剧搭建了舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么体面的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不屑。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:52, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
<br />
这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
<br />
当周承诺满足朋友们对他在第一个晚上“在帘子里”对新娘说的话的好奇心时，他故意将场景从背景转移到主要场景——帘子上。他的婚礼虽然是他私生活的一部分，但已经被鲍天晓和陈叠贤曝光，正如周所提到的，他们写了这件事并将其发表在报纸上。周本人也宣布，他自己的枕边谈话将出现在《画报》上。在公众的注视下，周意识到自己的隐私，他把“帘子”作为中心舞台，即房间的最内部空间;这是大胆的并且是非常规的。在中国人所熟悉的婚姻仪式和象征中，涉及婚房的描述是最性感的和最神秘的，激起了他们的情欲和窥探欲。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax.<br />
在“浮华生活的第六记录里”(浮生六记)，一本经典自传体，沈复(1763-)生动地描绘到，“借着婚烛我看见云的身材和以前一般苗条。当她的面纱被揭开后，我们面面相觑了一下。我们喝了交杯酒，然后一道坐下加入婚宴。我暗自抓住了她在桌下小巧的手。很暖和，很柔软，我的心按耐不住地跳动着。”然而，读者可能会觉得失望，因为这里没有出现他们期待的细节描述。而对于大作家而言，描写新婚夜可以符合读者的期待。比如，在李煜的一篇故事里，新娘给新郎更衣后，他看见新娘是“铁女子”后震惊了，她没有性器官”。在“红楼梦”里面，当宝玉讲新娘的面纱揭开时，发现是宝钗而不是黛玉--他被家里的长辈欺骗了，新娘被调换了。因此，传统婚姻体制的阴暗面被揭开了，小说的悲剧性主题也达到了高潮。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
<br />
From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
<br />
叙述者充满爱意的声音开始说道：“我的凤凰夫人：这是我们结婚的第一晚，这是拉开我们家庭生活帷幕的第一天。无论我们的房间是天堂还是地狱，这部戏都是从现在开始的。 无论我们的生活是悲伤还是幸福，我们今天都会开始我们的剧场。”漫长而充满激情的枕边细语是抒情的和装饰性的，带有言语和意象的修辞手段，如诗对联和平行句子，隐喻和重复，融合了古典和西式的词汇和语法。<br />
新郎说：从现在开始，你成为我的家人； 你胡凤君之名将冠以周姓。自你走进周家门起，你自然会为他的家人做些事情。 家务负担沉重地落在我们身上；<br />
我们应该一起承担：一半在我的肩上，另一半在你的肩上。我们应该结成一颗心来克服我们面前的无数困难。 我的老母亲需要你的优质服务，<br />
多户家庭需要您的精心照顾。如果有时候我感到焦虑，您应该了解我，关心我。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
<br />
Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
<br />
夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
<br />
因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和大男子主义色彩的男性话语感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。通过反复的共鸣，叙述者调整他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具有说服力。 细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”或 询问“您明白了吗”等等。 平行句除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬悦耳地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。 --[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。 通过反复的共鸣，叙述者改变了他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具说服力。细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”以及询问“您是否理解”等。 除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.”<br />
<br />
为了给新娘树立榜样，一家画廊引入了一个举世闻名的一些女性以增加说服力，并结合了情欲和伦理学，东西方的文学作为参照。 托尔斯泰夫人帮助她的丈夫投身于写作，并取得巨大成就。 传说中的女主人公梁红玉与她的丈夫一起击败了在十三世纪来中国的外国入侵者。 这是在不同国家实现文化平衡的一种有说服力的方式：后者是本地爱国者的国际化，而前者则是传统的“贤妻良母”的内在化。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
<br />
In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
<br />
<br />
电影呈现和民国主体性<br />
<br />
在这个故事中，幕布在主题和形式目的表现上起到至关重要的作用。窗帘是一种在夫妻生活中最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一种双重幕布的幻觉，从而为表达双重声音起到作用。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又向私人（演员）和公众（观众）交谈。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
电影表现和共和主体性<br />
<br />
在这个故事中，幕布对主题和形式至关重要。幕布是一件在夫妻生活中的最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一件双重幕布的幻觉，从而促进双重声音。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又与私人和共同听众对话。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:43, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
<br />
“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=10649920201130 trans2020-11-30T01:40:41Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Dan 彭丹 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
<br />
Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years.<br />
<br />
这是一个很好的例子，证明美食通常是由国家特色来定义的（但也适用于更小的地区间）。意大利美食的存在是无可争议的，但是没有必要为了地道的意大利美食而专程去一趟。当然也有非常多具有欧洲特色版本的中国美食（例如加上很浓的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
<br />
饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎是很难被改变的。尽管这位作家在中国待了很长的时间，但还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:55, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
要阐明美食通常由国界定义（在较小地区中也适用），这是个很好的例子。意大利菜的存在毋庸置疑，但不一定要去意大利才能吃到地道的意大利菜。当然还一直有欧化的中国菜肴（如加上浓郁的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
<br />
饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎很难改变，就算作者在中国待了数年，也还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
<br />
Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
<br />
北京大学食堂将意大利肉酱面作为一道午餐，在没吃到这顿饭之前，人们还是非常开心的。显然，只有外观保留了下来，意大利面的外观看起来与食谱上非常的相似，然而，它的味道却是糟糕至极，显然，厨师将番茄当作水果而不是蔬菜来烹饪的，面条煮得时间也过长。<br />
<br />
同样企业中也存在这种文化。例如，德国企业在许多国家运行得有条不紊的，即使同一件产品的生产过程也因国家而异，但是在世界范围内却不断的标准化，特别是一个企业在几个国家中拥有专利过程时。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
当设定相同的任务时，即设计街道清洁车，这会带来有趣的国家解决方案。<br />
<br />
[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
<br />
街道清洁车 a)中国<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
<br />
街道清洁车 b)<br />
<br />
Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
<br />
Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代以来，作者亲身体验了在美国的一家中外软件公司（如PC Express，后来在洛杉矶的TwinBridge）、中国本土的一家软件公司（如北京的新天地科技有限公司(Suntendy)）、中国的一家德国公司和一家中德混合公司工作的不同之处。这些亲身经历已写入这本手册。<br />
<br />
因此，这里的“文化”一词在很大程度上与传统或哲学同义，传统通常与过去有关，哲学则往往反映简化为几个原则的文化，因而已经有意识地加以控制且带有目的论色彩。基于这些原因，作者在目前的语境中选择了“文化”一词。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:28, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
<br />
In this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
<br />
The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
<br />
If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error.<br />
方法/视角<br />
工匠文化和商人文化的区分已经确立了有一段时间。这意味着在经济方面将会更多的精力放在开发尽可能完美的产品上，并不断地进行改善。经销商文化在尽可能以最低价格的购入和最高价格的售出之间所获得的利益上赋予更多的价值。我们在检查一个典型的投诉案例时，这种区别尤为明显：<br />
<br />
一位顾客若是抱怨手工艺文化中的产品，那么销售员就会考虑提供无差错交换产品或是给予经济补偿，并进一步报道产品错误， 可能会将产品送回公司以便找出错误。如果产品在好几处设备上都发生错误，原则上让开发部门消除错误。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
方法/观点<br />
工匠文化与商人文化的区分由来已久，这意味着在一个经济体中，将产品做到尽善尽美，不断提升产品质量会得到重点关注。经销商文化则将重点放在以尽可能便宜的价格购入和进可能贵的价格售出获得收益上。我们仔细研究一个典型投诉案例时，这种区别更加显而易见:<br />
在工匠文化中，顾客投诉会让店员很担忧，店员会主动退换成质量良好的商品或者给予资金赔偿，进一步通知产品的差错，尽可能地将产品送回，检验差错，如果几个产品都出现了差错，原则上会让研发部门消除差错。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
<br />
Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
<br />
Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
<br />
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed.<br />
<br />
在经销商文化中，服务和客户的满意度更为重要，在这里，客户是否生气以及对客户的投诉做出道歉和相应的补偿就显得尤为重要。而向制造商反馈是次要的。<br />
以下是一些属于相关类别的国家：<br />
工匠文化 零售商文化<br />
德国，法国，波兰，美国，中国，韩国<br />
生产文化和设计文化之间还有另一个区别。<br />
在19，20世纪，美国的机械工程发展了生产文化，而德国产生了建筑文化。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:06, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
<br />
In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
<br />
在德国，弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒率先在美国进行了合理化的各项工作，很快就为大众所接受，其中包括在1904年在柏林，1908年在亚琛以及1910年在汉诺威依次设立了工商管理部主任。因此，我认同库恩泽（Kunze)在2008年提出的观点，当时他对科斯关于1914年之前德国生产文化落后的看法是持反对意见的。<br />
<br />
在德国，作为一种工匠文化，产品在早期就注重多样性，并通过不断优化来实现。即使是在团队中，焦点仍是那些高素质的人，他们独立完成团队任务并承担相应的责任。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:21, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
<br />
After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
<br />
日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，日本不像德国那样通过马歇尔计划获得大量融资。出于自身需要，日本经济尽己所能，实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。因此，一种独特的民族生产文化应运而生，其特征如下：<br />
<br />
现代日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
<br />
日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
<br />
1.精益生产（无污染生产得以推广）<br />
<br />
2.准时生产/有序生产（高标准生产/高要求生产）<br />
<br />
3.质量圈/今井正明优化团队<br />
<br />
4.近期发展：多部门结构和去中央集权化--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，日本不像德国那样通过诸如马歇尔计划等契机获得大量融资。迫于经济压力，日本竭尽所能实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。这也催生了一种独特的民族生产文化，其总体特征如下：<br />
<br />
现代日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
<br />
日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
=＞国际讨论，分析和效仿的结果<br />
<br />
1. 精益化生产（推广零污染生产）<br />
<br />
2. 准时制生产/有序生产（按需生产）<br />
<br />
3. 质量研讨小组/优化改善小组<br />
<br />
4. 近期发展：多部门结构和权力下放--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
<br />
The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
<br />
如今，日本的生产理念被认为是新生产技术的带头人，以及现代工业国家的基准。丰田生产体系的仰慕者和效仿者，保时捷前老板文德林•魏德金（Wendelin Wiedeking）表示：“丰田是一致性的代名词”。它是衡量工厂现代化程度的国际标准。<br />
<br />
日本的生产模式认为，仓储成本的产生主要是由于供大于求。因此，开发了确保仅当客户购买产品时才（再）生产产品的技术（按需生产）。生产单个产品的较高成本可以通过节省产品的中间存储（对于缓慢移动的产品为最终存储）来弥补。如今，在书籍制作等领域，该做法已成功使用。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 14:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available.<br />
<br />
然而，更重要的是要尽可能不去阻碍生产活动，如果有，则需要尽快消除。一个典型的现象是工厂因为某些待安装的材料未及时运输到位导致停工。在工厂，流水线生产中一台机器出了问题，整个生产都会停止。于是，日本的生产理念便起到作用。该理念旨在训练每一名员工能够自行修复小缺陷，并承担修复的责任。至于大一点的问题，则由团队来解决。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:01, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些小缺陷不会第一时间出现，一旦出现，不仅要修复缺陷，而且要想出避免缺陷再次发生的办法，即：他们不仅要修复缺陷，而且要找出缺陷出现的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产中断的情况可能会出现。 然而在理想情况下，产量会根据需求进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地减慢或加快，最重要的是保证生产无间断且不发生任何故障。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会首先出现，并且不仅要修复缺陷，而且还考虑一种方法，来确保将来不会出现这种缺陷，即他们不仅要修复缺陷，还要解决缺陷的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，可以想象，生产也会中断。理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前需求的强劲程度，相应地降低或加快生产速度。最重要的是生产得不间断且无故障。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture.<br />
<br />
参与生产过程的员工可以提出自己的创新想法，日本的奖励制度与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在该想法实现之前，提出这个想法的人立即就得到一笔相关的钱，不需要重重审批。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或是持续改善团队。这些是比较小的工作组，负责生产环节的一小部分。他们应该在一开始就碰个面，然后至少每周定期开一次会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
<br />
最近，人们也提到了日本生产文化的其他因素，例如多部门结构和权力下放机制。它们也同样存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:03, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的雇员个人提出的创新也有类似的作用。在这里，重要的是，有想法的人在想法实施之前很久就能立即无官僚主义地得到一笔相关的资金。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或Kaizen小组。这些是较小的工作小组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开一次会，然后定期至少每周开一次会，公开讨论改进的建议。<br />
<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他要素也被提及，如多部门结构和分权。美国的生产文化中也有这些内容。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的个体员工所引入的创新的运作方式与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在想法实现之前，有想法的人立即得到一笔相关的钱，而不是官僚作风。<br />
另一个要素是质量循环或改善团队。这些是较小的工作组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开会一次，然后每周至少定期开会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他因素也被提到，例如多部门结构和权力下放。它们也存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
<br />
因此，今天的中国再次成为世界领先的经济体（从公元0年到公元1200年）。中国生产文化的一个特点就是它的连续性。几千年来，中国一直不间断地生产丝绸、茶叶、瓷器等产品。尽管在公元1200年至2000年期间，中国的生产并不是世界领先的，但在很长一段时间内，它基本上保持在一个稳定的水平上，才赶上了工业革命的迅速发展。如此悠久的生产文化在世界范围内是无与伦比的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the <br />
<br />
有一点仍然值得牢记，那就是中国正再一次成为经济领导国，但是在这个人口大国，并非所有的中国人都能从这个经济领导地位中获得相等的利益。当将绝对数据（如国内生产总值或与国内生产总值增长相关的数据）与相对数据（如人均国内生产总值）进行比较时，这种现象就很显而易见了。这里有一个类似的比较：<br />
<br />
[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
<br />
I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
<br />
我想由以下几个问题来引出我对生产文化的重要性的分析：<br />
<br />
Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
<br />
生产文化和（经济的）快速增长之间有联系吗？它是否是（经济）增长的原因？<br />
<br />
Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
<br />
显然，中国的生产文化还没有成为当代生产文化的一个国际模板。其原因是生产文化所具有的文化特异性吗？还有其他原因吗？其他原因又是否合理呢？<br />
<br />
In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
<br />
为了找到回答这些问题的线索，下面对中国生产文化进行了考察与定义。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:35, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
<br />
·Silk<br />
<br />
·Tea<br />
<br />
·Spices<br />
<br />
·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
<br />
·Jade<br />
<br />
·Bronze<br />
<br />
·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
<br />
·Iron<br />
<br />
·Paper<br />
<br />
·Gunpowder<br />
<br />
·Furs etc. <br />
<br />
The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
<br />
中国生产文化的真实性<br />
丝绸之路大约在公元前5世纪就有记载了，但是基因分析证明，大约在公元前1万年左右，丝绸之路就用来在双边贸易中，销售栽培植物与家养动物了。这条贸易之路也证明了文化交流的可能性。以下中国制造的产品在这条贸易之路上进行交易：<br />
·丝绸<br />
·茶叶<br />
·香料 <br />
·陶瓷<br />
·玉器<br />
·青铜器<br />
·漆器<br />
·铁<br />
·纸<br />
·火药<br />
·毛皮等<br />
当然，丝绸之路是双向的，黄金、宝石和玻璃很长一段时间都是从中国进口的。如果新丝绸之路能与铁路一起建成，将比目前的海运集装箱所需的运输成本和运输时间低好几倍。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:21, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
<br />
中国拥有世界上最大的商船--军舰，可容纳4000吨货物，中国也在海上贸易中占据了数百年的主导地位。早在公元前3世纪，中国就修建了皇帝运河，用于内河航运。<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
<br />
In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
ing时期的垃圾（14世纪）。<br />
<br />
从基督诞生到公元1200年，中国的国内生产总值是世界上最高的。直到1200年，中国才被西欧超越。<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
<br />
在1200年到2000年之间，中国远远落后于西方，成为发展中国家。 然而，从1700年至今，与美国和欧洲一样，中国也经历了人口爆炸。<br />
<br />
[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
<br />
While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
<br />
18世纪末，得益于工业革命，欧洲确保了更多人口的粮食供应。虽然在那时中国几乎处于休眠状态，但是到了20世纪，中国以迅雷不及掩耳之势赶上了欧洲：1900年，中国第一家工厂诞生；1950年，中央计划的大型生产单位出现；2000年私人企业产生，最初主要是合资企业，但这也导致了国内发展的不平衡。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:57, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
<br />
In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
<br />
In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
<br />
·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
<br />
·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings. <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
<br />
Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
<br />
'''Made in China'''<br />
<br />
The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
<br />
"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，如今中国的生产文化已不再封闭，比起日本受到西方文化的影响，中国受到历史影响的程度更深。甚至在21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商科对其进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来区别德国的劣质产品。直到后来，由于质量的提高，“德国制造”才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价、低工资、劣质、大规模生产和剽窃、等级观念以及廉价劳动力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:48, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天的中国生产文化不再纯正了，而且比日本的西方文化更受历史的影响。<br />
<br />
甚至连21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商学院进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来把本国的产品与德国的劣质产品区别开。直到后来，由于质量的提高，这个罪恶的标记才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价产品、低工资、低质量、大规模生产、抄袭、等级管理以及像“蚁族”一样的廉价劳动力。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
<br />
1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
<br />
2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
<br />
3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
<br />
但是实际上这个印象也只是停留在中国第一次大量生产的时候；在此期间的情形已经变了。<br />
<br />
1.在21世纪初，伴随着工资的极度增加，中国劳动市场第一次出现饱和。同时，支付给相对合格的一名中国工程师一天的工资和西方工业国家的是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2.之前最重要的生产部门现在已被作为经济领域中最重要的服务部门所取代。<br />
<br />
3.西方公司在中国一向都有质量保证的规则，中国也正在向西方学习。总所周知的劣质中国产品也已不再出现。在许多公司中，质量保证这一规则正在被实行。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:14, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但事实上，这只是对中国第一次大规模生产的早期印象而已；与此同时，情况在不断地变化。<br />
<br />
1 在21世纪初，中国的劳动市场第一次接近于饱和状态，这是由于工资的急剧增加。同时，一名合格的中国工程师的工资和西方工业国家的工资是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2 服务业逐渐替代了早些年最重要的生产部门作为重要的经济组成部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
3 中国现在也正在学习西方国家公司的质量保障规则，中国的产品很差这一传言已经成为了过去式了。如今在大部分的公司，质量保障这一规章用于实践。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:43, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
<br />
6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
<br />
[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4，除了复制西方的产品，中国也已经有了在国内进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机和笔记本电脑等）。<br />
<br />
5，中国公司如今正在全世界地购买一些掌握技术的公司（IBM笔记本部门=>联想‘沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6，由于极大地需求，中国公司的管理人员几乎把那些介绍了西方管理规则的畅销书买完了，并且带着好奇心和热情把这些规则应用于实践，比如说西方比较盛行的小组会议。如今在中国的公司，开会的频率远远高于德国（中国一天5次会议，而德国一天1-2次会议）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:26, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.除了再生产西方的产品，中国进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机，笔记本电脑等）已经可以买到。<br />
<br />
5.中国公司现在正在世界各地收购具备所需技术的公司（IBM的笔记本部门--联想、沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6.由于庞大的渴求，中国公司的管理人员读完了所有讲述西方管理细则的畅销书，并带着极大的好奇心和热情将这些细则运用于实践之中，例如，小组会议。如今相较于德国公司来说，小组会议在中国公司更加的普遍。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''Hierarchy'''<br />
<br />
Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
<br />
'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
<br />
In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
<br />
In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
<br />
'''Concept of Face'''<br />
<br />
For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
<br />
哥哥的地位自然比弟弟高。在汉语中，亲属称谓严格分为“长”和“幼”。前一个形容词“alter（改变）”在亲密形式中是一个敬语。<br />
在商业生活中，年长的员工也会因为他们的生活经历而受到尊重（也可能是因为他们所拥有的庞大关系网）。一个积极的副作用是这种经验仍然存在于公司。新的研究还显示，西方国家的老员工往往被低估，他们的经验必须得到更多的利用，知识才能留在公司。<br />
<br />
”面子的概念“<br />
面子这个概念是为了保护个人，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的。为此，公司遵守不成文的规则（制度）：不要在大众面前批评别人。如果必须进行批评，那么就委婉间接的说出来。一个人的请求不会被直接拒绝，我们不会直接说“不！”中国人对此的细微差别可能会有相应的分类。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“面子的概念<br />
面子之所以存在，是为了自我保护，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的也是如此。为此，公司有个不成文的规定：不要当众批评别人。如果必须要批评，那就婉约一点。我们不会直接拒绝别人的请求，不会直接说“不。”中国人对于这一观念极为敏感，他们“或许”知道怎样进行区分才能避免伤害。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
<br />
Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
<br />
One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
<br />
传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司的总经理职位，甚至是高级职位，最好都是那些能被任命者信任的人。最大的信任是由家庭关系给予的,或者是通过共同的生活阶段，例如出生在同一个村庄，在同一所学校，同一个俱乐部，等等。当然，职业资格也有助于建立信任，但这种信任不是特别重要。<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是党指定的，这些职位是由相应的干部结合而成的。<br />
这种任命政策的一个后果是领导普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司中的总经理及高级职位通常任命者所信任的。家庭关系给人最大的信任，比如家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:51, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures.<br />
从经济角度来说，这也是一个紧急情况，尤其是对那些管理着更有能力的下属的老板们来说。因此，结合表层含义，一方面，老板们不得不隐藏自己的无能，另一方面又想保住自己的位置，也就是说，他们面临着做出正确决策的巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板与专家非正式地讨论了可能的替代方案。最终，他获得了广泛的意见，并独自做出了对他来说最好的决定。桂冠实际上是别人的，这一事实仍未明说；它深厚了相关人员间的人情关系。一旦老板做出决定并传达给员工，员工就会执行，不会因为等级结构而产生矛盾。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在经济领域，这也是一种紧急情况，尤其当老板手下有着更为出色的员工时。一想到面子理念，老板一方面会掩盖自己的无能，另一方面又想捍卫自己的地位。他们做出正确决策时面临巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板和专家们随意讨论可行的替代性方案。结果是，老板听取了大量意见，做出了最利于其自身的决策。事实上，功劳属于那些默默献言的专家们。此举促进了相关人员间的人情往来。一旦老板制定并传达某个决策，员工们考虑到公司等级结构，便毫无异议地执行。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
<br />
Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
<br />
The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
<br />
1. Hong Kong <br />
<br />
2. China<br />
<br />
3. USA<br />
<br />
4. Germany<br />
<br />
当下级认为某个上级的决定是错误的，他可能不会告知老板。然而，当层级结构不能适应（共同的休闲活动或类似问题上），下级就会寻求机会间接地将错误的决定传递给老板。<br />
<br />
每天的会议 C> USA> D<br />
<br />
中国开会的频率比德国高的多。对所选的4个国家或地区的顺序排名如下：<br />
<br />
1. 香港<br />
<br />
2. 中国<br />
<br />
3. 美国<br />
<br />
4. 德国<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
<br />
[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
<br />
1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化的形式及其原因<br />
<br />
专业技术：羞耻/ 防卫/ 大卫对抗歌利亚一样/ 基于国家利益的工业间谍活动 专业技术盗窃<br />
<br />
创新：<br />
<br />
竞争：<br />
<br />
国家管控：<br />
<br />
法律：<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化有以下的特征：<br />
<br />
1. 在专业技术领域，中国落后于西方工业国家和日本，这让中国人民感到羞耻。许多中国人认为自己处于守势，中国与美国、日本的关系就像大卫对抗歌利亚一样，也因此将基于广义国家利益的工业间谍活动和专门技术盗窃视为合理。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
<br />
China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
<br />
The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
<br />
中国历来以发明帝国著称，所以活版印刷、火药、瓷器等发明的时间比世界上其他地方的类似发明要早得多。然而，这些发明往往不是批量生产的，而是大规模生产的，例如在欧洲，火药促使了手枪和大炮的生产。可以夸张地说，火药被贵族们用来代替新年的烟花。这显示了中国特色，即创新能力与市场推广能力同时不足。<br />
在很大程度上工业革命也与中国擦肩而过。因为中国和欧洲一样，由于卫生和医疗条件的改善，人口激增，但与此同时，食品生产的自动化并没有超越制造业，中国的生活水平落后了。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:01, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模仿几乎和原创一样重要。因此，前几世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校体制都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个原因可能就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模本几乎和原本一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校系统都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个证据就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿在中国一直很受重视。 一份好的副本几乎和原件一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和今天的学校制度都强烈倾向于再生产，而不是创造。其中一个原因可能是人物数量众多，需要学生长年累月的记忆。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
<br />
When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
<br />
中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与西方相比，中国的版权观念不那么根深蒂固。<br />
当第一次鸦片战争的炮声把中国人从睡梦中惊醒的时候，他们没有进行自己的研究和开发是非常遗憾的。即使中国人可以忽略外国侵略者的暴力，但却羡慕他们的技术优势，从那时起，他们开始宣传向外国人学习技术并加以复制，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和主权。这种嫉妒感产生了一种极端的动机，既模仿别人的优越感，又最终超越别人。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
<br />
The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
<br />
Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
<br />
The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
<br />
At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
1978年以来的改革开放政策导致20世纪末外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为了保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业必须在当地提供一定比例的产品。因此，他们必须寻找能够向生产链提供零部件的中国供应商。这促进了当地工业的发展，也促进了技术的转让。<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 10:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. 国家管控'''<br />
<br />
1978年改革开放以来，直到20世纪末，外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业生产产品必须有一定比例的当地产品。因此，这些公司必须寻找中国的供应商以为生产链提供零部件，这促进了当地产业发展和技术转让。<br />
<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这进一步加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
<br />
'''5. Legal system'''<br />
<br />
The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
<br />
Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry.<br />
<br />
然而，法规（例如，合资企业法）以及法庭判决都有利于国内企业。中国也已经建立起一种国家资本主义，用来资助企业、支持出于世界市场中的国内企业、为海外投资提供资助。除此之外，版权侵权法规和企业情报刺探（包括军民联合）都促使中国经济发展。在特朗普的治理下，美国提出了“美国第一”的保护主义策略，以此作为回应。<br />
<br />
'''5.法律体系'''<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系不是彼此独立，互不相关的。它是应整个国家的要求而实行的。<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的财政实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但是同时觉得这些公司会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:03, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系并非独立存在，而是顺应国家需要而实行的。<br />
<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的经济实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但又怕它们会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 04:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
<br />
This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
<br />
'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``必要是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
效率提高的原因是，为全世界所熟知的日式管理文化或生产文化，在第二次世界大战后，缺乏资金购置新机器。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``需求是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
在第二次世界大战后，日本缺乏资金购置新机器从而导致了效率的提高，这也是众所周知的日式管理文化或生产文化。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
<br />
In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
<br />
The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
<br />
专业能力往往起不到任何作用。但这也发生了一代人的变化;最初，中央委员会的最高领导干部没有在苏联接受过教育或培训；20世纪80年代他们被技术官僚取代了；在21世纪初，他们中的许多人拥有美国大学学位。<br />
<br />
在商业领域，中国最大国有企业的领导干部仍由党授予。<br />
<br />
管理者们在职业上的无能产生了一种困境，如果你不想被一个更有专业能力的管理者取代，就必须在日常工作中采用一种复杂的策略去应对。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
<br />
·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
<br />
·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
<br />
·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
<br />
This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships.<br />
<br />
该战略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司的专家进行非正式协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
该策略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司真正的专家进行非正式的协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:49, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
<br />
A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二人的第三人，第二人随后只建立联系，然后退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于困乏的工业革命和市场缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有形成自己的研发传统。他们没有长期进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿并最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二个人的第三人，而第二个人只是建立联系，然后就退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于工业革命停滞不前，市场上缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有建立起自己的研发传统。在很长一段时间里，研究者们没有进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿他们，最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
<br />
“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
在中国生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。在过去的几十年中，它们已经习惯与废料一同出售。 由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废品。 外国投资者首先必须在中国重申质量保证理念。 由于中国的激烈竞争以及对世界市场价格和标准的遵循，质量保证现已在中国内部化。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球工业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。几十年里，他们已经习惯了和废品一起销售。由于劳动力成本低，第一批在中国生产商品的工厂也相应地交付了次品。外国投资者首先不得不在中国重新引入质量保证概念。由于中国市场的激烈竞争和对世界市场价格和标准的追求，质量保证在中国已经内化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
<br />
In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
<br />
通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
<br />
In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
与这些运动类似，这些概念的引入具有恒久的主张，但只风靡了小段时间。 这种基于当前管理战略趋势的管理模式，也可以称为游击管理，遵循韩博天的“游击政治”概念。<br />
在中国，保密文化（代表证、访问限制）是普遍存在的，尤其是在高科技公司中，这与美国完全相同。 在中国，这种文化只是简单的从美国复制而来，当然也是因为中国在国外的工业间谍活动的发现，例如技术。 在德国公司中，往往得不到充分的保护，不受第三方的访问。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:50, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
在所有这些行为中，面孔意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)，这主要是由于生产压力高导致的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:22, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
在所有这些行为中，面子意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力，主要是因为生产压力高。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:59, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点就在于，即使已经成年了，年轻人仍然可以快乐的玩耍，别人也不会认为他们很可笑。如果野心是尽可能地模仿外国产品甚至是超越它并投入实施，例如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学，那么玩的乐趣是无拘无束的。<br />
新的游戏规则很快被接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经导致了一种问题：当这个机制需要改变的时候总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点是：即使已经成年了，他们仍然玩得滑稽可笑，但他们自己却不会使人觉得很荒唐。如果他们是立志于效仿国外同样的产品甚至是超越它并将如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学等投入实施，那么玩的乐趣就无穷无尽。<br />
<br />
新的游戏规则很快就被人们所接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经造成一种局面：当需要改变的时候，总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的积极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•网络<br />
<br />
•中国企业的优惠待遇（例如在投标、竞争中，在合资企业等企业集团内）<br />
<br />
•对科技的狂热<br />
<br />
•残酷，这反过来又促进了竞争<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的消极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•扭曲竞争<br />
<br />
•助长管理职位的不称职<br />
<br />
•优先个人利益而不是非现金利益，从根本上来说对生产文化是消极的<br />
<br />
•仪式/惯例（面子、批评、地位等）<br />
<br />
•不透明的国家赞助和腐败--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
2020年设立的由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家组成的的自由贸易区，与建议设立的由美国或者欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同是，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在哪些方面可以作为管理和产业文化的国际标杆？'''<br />
<br />
由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家在2020年设立的自由贸易区，与建议由美国或欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同在于，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在管理和产业文化在哪些方面可以称为国际标杆？'''--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人在公司中的等级地位无关紧要，只有他们的专业能力。对最有能力的人提出质疑是可能的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉和奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行的世界，即所谓的个人关系系统中。由于这种脱钩，负责任的决策者并不介意质疑其他不负责任但更有能力的同事/员工/外人。同时，同事/员工/外部人员也有动力给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他可以在平行世界中得分。<br />
<br />
结果是有理有据，被接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人与其在公司的级别地位是不相关的，与之相关的仅仅是他的能力。质疑最有能力的人是可取的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行世界，即所谓的人际关系系统中。基于关系系统的分离，决策者也就不介意质疑其他不负责任但是能力更强的同事、员工或者外人。同时，这些人也会更有动力去给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他们会在这个平行世界中得分。<br />
最终得到有理有据并且可以接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other. <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression.<br />
<br />
我们要重点注意以下三个方面：<br />
1、最终目标的实现不能否定其他方面的工作，甚至恶化整个大局，因为同事们都沉迷于游戏。新型的管理或生产策略在中国员工看来都是见怪不怪了，他们从政治或教育运动（如交通教育）中了解到这一点。<br />
二要牢记理解相关哲学。说这一点重要，是因为当重要的西方管理文化进入中国时，正确的中文术语应首要出现以顺应潮流，比如英式表达。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但重要的是要注意这三个方面：<br />
1.实际的目标应该在不忽视工作的其他方面的情况下实现，因为同事们都沉迷于玩乐会使整体的结果恶化。对中国员工来说，引入新的管理或生产策略并不是什么新鲜事，他们从政治或教育导向的活动（如交通教育）中已经了解到这一点。必须牢记的第二个方面是对相应的哲学方面的理解，这一点很重要，例如，在向中国引进西方管理文化时，最重要的是首先找到正确的中文术语，如英式表达。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees.<br />
<br />
翻译不正确或根本没有翻译的术语会带来成功信息，即引入了一个新系统，而引入了该系统所理解的内容。<br />
<br />
在这情形下必须考虑的第三个方面是可持续性。许多引入的新概念在几周后就被遗忘而老一套又回来了。只有个别的，通常是高级员工还记得新引进的东西，偶尔也会提到，但不能强加在他们的员工身上。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译错误或根本没有翻译的术语也会有所成果，其引入了一个新系统，并引入了该系统所理解的内容。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，可持续性是必须考虑的第三个方面。许多引入的新概念在几周后就为人们所遗忘，取而代之的是重蹈覆辙的老一套概念。只有个别人，通常是高层还记得新引进的东西，他们偶尔也会提起，但却无法强迫他们的员工也记得。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
与工作日程（例如日常使用的计算机工作界面）相结合的过程描述系统非常有用，员工可以按照给定的路径来制定或执行决策或流程。<br />
<br />
总而言之，游戏化的方法减少了接触新鲜事物的恐惧，工作日程多样化，员工也能进一步获得资格。<br />
<br />
3.产品开发的速度和灵活性<br />
<br />
中国制造业的一个标志是产品加工和发展的速度之快，以及它们对不断变化的客户要求或市场条件作出的快速反应。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。处在本国相对迟缓的生产环境下的西方企业可以落户中国来学习这些品质，并从这些经验中获益。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:07, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
<br />
最初的特征物流。正如这张图片所示，现有的原始手段被开发到了极致，能够驾驭极端的自然方式最令人钦佩。<br />
<br />
过去很长一段时间，中国的生产力比物流发展更快。到21世纪初期，快递业务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才追赶上来。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
原始功能是物流。如图所示，现有的原始手段得到最大限度的利用。令人钦佩的是控制极端情况的过程方法。<br />
<br />
长期以来，中国的生产能力快于物流业的发展。在21世纪初，送货服务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才开始迎头赶上。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German. <br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany. <br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
<br />
来自中国大陆、台湾、英国以及德国的14位研究中国文学的学者参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中令人着迷的表达。语言没有边界：大会虽用英文举行，但也破例宣读了部分含有英文摘要的中文论文。<br />
<br />
按照大会的流程，这些论文中的一部分会组成一本文集。这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版，在2000年由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能进行实时邮件讨论，并且能在网站上看到不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
来自美国、中国台湾、英国和德国的14位中国文学领域的学者都参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中有趣的现象。语言无边界：大会除了部分论文是含有英文摘要的中文论文之外，其余都是用英文展开的。<br />
<br />
会议过程中的论文选集发到人们手中，这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版。在2000年12月由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能借助邮件展开激烈的讨论，并且能在网站上获取不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
<br />
这本书中含有大部分会议所用论文，因此，欢迎每位与会者给出反馈。我第一次进行这种自由的学术交流是在美国，当时李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者到哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习，时长为1998到1999年。这期期刊的撰写者只能吸引中国读者的注意力，但阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:28, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
本书中有大部分的会议论文，欢迎大家给予反馈。我第一次体验这种自由的知识交流是在美国，当时是1998年到1999年，李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者留在哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习。<br />
<br />
本书的编者只能介绍这种中式体裁和吸引读者对这种中式体裁的注意，而阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:<br />
<br />
中国散文的繁荣发展<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
加速建设现代化时期、西学东渐时期（1920至1930年代）、经济解放之一时期（1980至1990年代）论文出版出现繁荣发展。这在一定程度上得益于新的杂志和丛书的出现，它们主要被用作当代散文家的工具。这种媒介的出现表现出明显的趋势：于中国作者和读者而言，论文是一种压制和增长兴趣的媒介类型。<br />
<br />
在1990年代中期，中国的论文产量和受欢迎程度上升的三个原因是：--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
·a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
20世纪最后20年中，小品文成了知识分子和那些读日报的普罗大众沟通的主要媒介，由此，这种文学体裁开始以小篇幅和通用语将精英分子的思想传播开来，成为了大众文化和精英文化间的纽带。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在二十世纪最后二十年中，小品文成了知识分子话语圈和日报读者群的主要沟通媒介。因此，我们拥有了一种文学体裁，这种体裁能用小篇幅传播精英分子的思想，也能充当大众文化和精英文化之间的纽带。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:43, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
主题:“让我们给这篇文章在中国文学中指定一个合适的位置!”<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学历史叙事，勾勒出了一幅中国文学的不完整图景:缺乏散文的体裁。我们习惯于C.T. Hsia， Průšek,和Anderson建立的叙事学，这让中国文学在小说的面前显得黯然失色。民国初期，五四运动确立了主导叙事之后，小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，使后者得到了重视。<br />
<br />
我将列举几点原因来解释为什么散文实际上在数量上如小说和诗歌一样多，以及为什么它应该被高度重视。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:36, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
这篇文章对整个中国社会产生了直接的影响。散文体裁的影响，它的直接语言，它与生活的联系，以及它通过报纸直接与个人读者接触，比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。<br />
这篇文章还比诗歌和小说更能反映社会趋势。个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，这在内容和形式上都是有限的。短小的散文体现了短暂的生命力，可以在上班的地铁上阅读，在那里，诗歌可能不会如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
这篇文章对中国社会有着直接的历史影响。散文体裁以其简明的语言，与生活的联系，能以报纸为媒介直接影响到作为个体的读者，它比小说或诗歌所产生的间接影响更大。<br />
比起诗歌和小说，这篇文章更能反映社会趋势。相较于诗歌在内容和形式上的受限，散文能将个人主义更直接地表现出来。短小精悍的散文体现了快餐文化，在上班的地铁上也方便阅读，然而诗歌却不大可能如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
<br />
•与诗歌相比，论文占人口的比例更大，不需要花大量时间阅读小说。论文本身是一种高度现实的类型，即使不仅仅是今天的类型。<br />
<br />
•论文的产量超过小说的产量。<br />
<br />
如果考虑到这篇论文，中国文学的图画能否保持不变？ 如上所述，论文的真实价值与当前价值之间存在很大的反差。让我们为论文分配适当的位置！--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
散文比诗歌更受欢迎，也不像小说一样要花大量时间阅读。如果散文不只是一种当代体裁的话，那么它本身也是一种高度现实性的体裁。<br />
•散文的产量超过了小说的产量。<br />
如果我们把散文考虑进去，那么中国文学的版块能保持不变吗?如上所述，在散文的真实价值和当前价值之间存在很大差别。让我们正确看待散文吧!--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
'''未知的体裁'''<br />
<br />
由20世纪选集和文集讲述的文学历史叙事所绘画出的中国文学图景并不完整：即散文体裁的缺失。长期以来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）忽视了这种体裁的优点：然而，自从五四运动确立主叙事、民国初期重视小说文学和创作通俗化以来，散文的兄长--小说就一直受到珍视。现代选集会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学作品的支柱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:10, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
···未知体裁···<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所记叙的文学史，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景：散文的体裁是缺乏的。长期以来，散文作为一种功利性文体被忽视（马格里斯1949年，施寒微1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年）；而它的兄长--小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作白话化以来，在五四运动确立的总叙事之后，一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信，诗歌、小说、戏剧三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:12, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
20世纪文学选集对于中国文学史的叙述是不完整的，其中缺失了散文这一体裁。长期起来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）地忽视了这一出色的体裁，但与此同时，由于五四运动树立起了以叙事为主的创作风格，到民国初期发展为重视小说体裁和通俗化创作，散文的兄长--小说，则一直受到重视。而现代文选则告诉读者，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学的支柱。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
其对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年出版的《中国现代文学思想》一书中有所体现。散文体裁的影响，其直接的语言，它与生活的联系(例如，它在与文化大革命的适应中所起的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触到个人读者。这种影响比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。这首诗是一种逃避社会生活，逃避政治问题和时间的文体。<br />
胡适认为，在现代性的进程中，诗歌是最重要的，因为诗歌引起了情感。但它也依赖于图像和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏剧在社会变迁中的作用。但三文却能给事物命名，它反映了生命，宛如万花筒。现代主体性是以三文为工具建构的。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
<br />
散文也比诗歌和小说更好地反映了社会潮流:个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，但在内容和形式上都有一定的局限性。短暂性体现在短文的简短形式上，人们可以在上班的地铁上读到这些短文，而在地铁里，人们可能不会那么自然地欣赏诗歌。<br />
<br />
阅读散文的人比读诗歌的人多，花在阅读小说上的时间也可以追溯到过去。散文本身是一种高度现实性的体裁，如果不只是当今的体裁的话。<br />
<br />
这篇文章告诉我们更多的是关于一个作家和他的时代而不是小说或诗歌，因为在这种体裁中，我们可以不受韵律限制地见到作者本人。我们以真实的眼光看待他所处的当代社会。许多作家在他们生命的后期开始从事散文写作，如鲁迅、巴金和王孟。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:11, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”制作量超过“小说”制作量：从十九世纪七十年代起，中国报纸（申报，时报等等。梁启超认为报纸的作用既自由又权威：一方面，他认为新闻媒体是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他赞成审查制度。）作为20世纪初期的大众传播媒介，报纸以序列化形式仅展示一个或两个虚构的故事，不过它发明了杂文专栏，如“杂感 ”（鲁迅从中发展了他的杂文），和“ 随笔”或“ 随想”（从其中衍生出像巴金的《穗香路》这样的著名收藏）。<br />
<br />
让我们为杂文指定适当的位置<br />
<br />
必须从以上提出的杂文价值与评价之间的对比中得出以下结论：让我们为散文指定适当的位置！<br />
<br />
重新考虑杂文将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
我仅举几例来说明杂文对中国文学的贡献，迄今为止，由于C.T. Hsia, Prçšek and Anderson等人的叙述，小说的光芒盖过了杂文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 04:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
<br />
我们习惯于建立叙事，例如《五四》文学的出现和成功. 但是这种观点忽视了这种作用，例如，在本世纪初的激烈的学术辩论中，元阳护蝶排在不同声音的合唱团中扮演了角色. 当时的五四分之一小组是众人之中的一个声音，只有在公共领域中它的激动和争论才得以成功，因此我们必须使用新的手段来将中文论文分配给自己的位置. 我们从简化的叙述中学到，区分和重建复杂的时间背景是绝对必要的. 对中国文学的理解仅取决于小说和诗歌的发展，而更广泛的理解将改变中国文学的整体面貌. 学术上的努力是在这种类型的方法中使用现代文学理论.<br />
石迪文石迪文[编辑]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 18:13, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
从一开始，人们就认为散文的价值低于诗歌:最古老的参考文献[这比在Morohashi, 5:529a /连续页数5167a，和在中国语言的百科词典，第73卷/ s.p.c. 6137c中提到的更古老。)“散文”这个术语,我发现是罗大经提出(?- 1248年之后):“詩騷妙天下,而散文頗覺瑣碎局促”。诗歌以一种美妙的方式感化人类，散文则是不连贯的杂谈，影响有限。罗大经 14: Baihai: 1)。罗大经提出的另一种质疑则更为正式:与具有高度艺术性和百年历史的诗歌创作传统相比，在他看来，直接的、通常是白话的散文没有什么价值。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:19, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
<br />
在西方，真正的“文章写作的艺术”于16世纪被提出来作为新的重组知识的媒介。这种重新组织来源于哥白尼的观察，这摧毁了中世纪的所有观念。<br />
<br />
在中国，特别是公元四、五世纪对佛教的争论，导致了文学这一传统的起源。然而，中国的“散文(essay)”传统中，对“散”的理解即为驱散、空余、松散、放松、不规则的又自由的风格，在从对话中剥离出来之前不为人知的自由性散文诗或是仍能够在哲学书籍《论语》中见到的谚语。荀子通过他的哲学性论述确立了后来的散文雏形。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
2.散文作为现代媒介<br />
散文是20世纪初现代化社会的一种体裁。它篇幅短，内容贴近现实且没有限制。因此它也能够记录和传播社会最好的形态思想。这是向公众传递时代知识领袖的思想最好的形式，也创造一个公共领域。想象一下没有散文的五四运动吧!想象一下鲁迅的大部分作品都不是散文！<br />
为了应对战争和军阀主义，许多作家不得不定义和重新定义他们的地位和自我理解，并且在后来的现代化社会中，他们通常埋没自己的理想, 从更大的角度看待那些被作者声称是散文产物之一的社会“需求”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
<br />
但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
<br />
我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
<br />
In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
<br />
中国散文是源于本土传统？还是产自西方翻译？这个问题一直是个争议。但无论如何，这两种说法本身就具关联性：自1907年起直至现在，中国散文的体裁形式主要出自西方的散文译本。从这一点来看，中国散文自发展伊始就一直在语言、形式和术语上借鉴西方模式。后来，中国散文的推行者无奈只能仅仅诉诸于中国历史来证明中国本土散文的渊源。五四运动中涌现的传奇作家认为英语散文是中国散文的起源。但之后其中一些作家改变观念，通过证明中国散文自成一家来支撑自己的散文理论。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too.<br />
<br />
这是第一次，不仅可以记录事件，从而扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一位作者传达给另一位作者或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记就此写下了。由于那时缺少珍贵的书写材料，所以用了书卷的边边角角。时至今日，我们在早期欧洲（例如古希腊）和中国的书卷上都能找到这些笔记。这些笔记是个人对于阅读文本的想法、第三方读者对于未知地方和事件的解释、对于不清晰文本段落的解释，对看似书写错误的字符的替代字符，有时只是用来构思文本的标记符号。学校也用这些笔记符号来作为课本来教授学生阅读。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:24, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第一次，不仅可以记录事件，扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一个作者传递给另一个或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记由此形成。由于缺乏珍贵的书写材料，书卷的空白处便用来填笔记。时至今日，我们仍然可以在欧洲早期（如古希腊）以及中国的书卷上找到这些笔记。它们是个人对文本的解读，包括为第三读者对其陌生的地点、事件以及晦涩的文本段落作出解释，订正看似写错的字符，有时是为了划分文本结构，这些笔记也被学校用作教授阅读的课本。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 00:15, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader.<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的起源。在欧洲，它们被称为“旁注”、“边注”，在中国被称为“笔记”（biji筆記，或临时记录）。它们在明朝盛极一时。它们可以是私人的史料、轶事、谈话和沉思。然而，作为一种特有的体裁，人们有散文意识的时候已经是清朝过后了，当时已有大量的散文选集被编撰出来。<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的出处。在欧洲，它们被称为“边注”，“旁注”，在中国被称为“笔记”(biji筆記，或“偶注”)。它们在明朝很兴盛，可以包含私人的历史笔记、轶事、交流和沉思。然而，“自成一种”的散文意识并非起源于中国清代，当时已编撰了大量的散文选集。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
所有这些散文术语，以及蒙田创造出的“随笔”这个词本身，即“尝试，试图”，都反映出散文短暂的、主观的、边缘化的特点。这个词本身就带有轻描淡写的意思，尤其是当你想表达主观的个人想法时又为了不让读者觉得自己很有学究气的时候就更显得具有实质性。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
这篇文章的另一个特点是折衷主义，即在阅读原文时，学者们经常联想与其他文章的引述和联系之处，因而有许多注释没有标注对其他作品的引用。<br />
<br />
In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.<br />
<br />
1977年罗伯特·施莱特发展出边际主义美学说，1996年克劳斯·彼得·菲弗进一步完善该学说，这有助于对这篇文章的特征进行理解。从方法论的角度上来说，边际主义给作者提供了从书本白边回溯到文本本身的宏大视角。施莱特认为，只有政见不同，边际主义才得以存在。边际主义是在阅读过程中留给读者的私人发展空间。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
<br />
Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
<br />
In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
<br />
这是批评和抗议的必要条件。 边缘主义的读者就是带有批判性阅读文章的人。 同样，蒙田（Montaigne）视自己为边缘主义者（Ulke，31-38）。<br />
<br />
现在让我们用边缘主义的概念来研究20世纪中国的论文。 在这里，我以鲁迅的论文为例。 离题是鲁迅在其论文中的修辞手段之一。 题外话与边缘主义和散文主义密切相关：<br />
<br />
鲁迅在他的一些论文中偏离了他的实际主题。 这种现象在他晚期的文章中有所增加。 在威尔珀特之后，离题是有关于怀疑意识和警告信号的一种表达的可能性，即某些事情出错了。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
<br />
1, digression on purpose<br />
<br />
In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
<br />
沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了与他同时代的陈希英的批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这种边缘主义与中国的王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，正如鲁迅在《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在《无常，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)一文中改变了他对同时代的陈西滢的评判。在《24孝图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他反对“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用回忆性和自传体散文来呼吁白话的日常和政治的价值.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
2, not targeted digression<br />
<br />
In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
<br />
3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
<br />
2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这是一篇长篇散文，其中再次历史性地描述了活无常和死有分这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于这个文章出现在脚注里的问卷来说，该问卷的主题与经典探讨的主题严重偏离。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这一长篇散文再次历史性地描述了黑白无常这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于在这篇文章脚注中出现问卷，其主题与经典探讨的主题出现了严重偏离。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
<br />
In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
<br />
5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
<br />
Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
<br />
4、社会批判的一面打击了边缘主义<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他调侃的事情，别人都在解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是一种效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:39, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4、边缘主义本身就带有社会批判的一面<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他取笑的事情，别人都解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:14, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
<br />
Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
<br />
'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为不论是过去还是将来，中国人都想成为永远的奴隶。在自传体散文《无关紧要的回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习。散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
中国教科书中出现了一种看似无法打破“文言散文”的中国传统（于在春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。中国学者对中国传统散文写作的价值和西方对其影响仍有争议。一些人承认西方的影响对当今我们理解中国散文十分重要。（王斌，1992年,范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）。其他学者认为西方的影响被高估了。1996年丹顿表明中国缺少理解西方文学理论的理论背景，建议我们首先按照本国传统理解散文。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:49, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
汉语教科书中出现了一种看似完整的“文言散文”中国传统（于再春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。然而，学者们对中国传统散文的价值以及西方对其影响仍有争议。有些人承认，西方的影响在我们现在所理解的中国散文中十分关键。(王斌,1992年，范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）也有学者认为西方的影响被高估了。在1996年，丹顿指出，中国缺少理解西方文学的理论背景，并建议我们首先基于民族传统来理解散文。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay).<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家转变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证据，来支持散文中本人的理论：比如，鲁迅及其理论——“展开”说与”萌芽“论——视金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，但是他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与“英国小说‘合成’论”之中。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:31, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家改变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找一种中国本土散文传统的证据，来支撑自己的散文理论：比如，在鲁迅及其“展开说”与“萌芽论”中，将金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征视为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，尽管他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与英国小品“合成”论中。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的许多作家都可以被称为传奇，他们演绎着个人的观点对叙述史实有多大的影响。所以作家都认为英文文章是中文文章的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾五四运动时期文学作品里的中国传统文化没有留下，当代文学作品中也没有体现，中国文学主要是用来学习的，人们主要是通过查阅其来证明其中的理论。你可以找到每一时期每个话题的例子，因为文章海纳百川。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的传奇作家可以告诉我们个人观点对史实阐述而产生的影响有多大。这些作家都认为英国散文是中国散文的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾，在五四运动时期文学作品中中国传统文化没有占据一席之地，在当代文学作品中也没有得到传承。中国文学适合用来学习研究，因为人们可以通过查阅来证明文章中的理论。正是因为文章海纳百川，所以你可以找到任何时期任何话题的范例。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
由于痴迷于第一人称的叙述，它混合了日记，情诗，自传和新闻报道这些体裁。我认为 20世纪初对《蝴蝶》这种主观体裁的痴迷为中国现代散文打下了基础。<br />
作品中的戏剧手段在叙述空间中创造出了双重自我- 身为表演者的自我和旁观者眼中的自我。本文强调戏剧性的修辞得益于传统诗歌和戏剧，当20世纪20年代新文学成为主流时传统诗歌和戏剧就退出了舞台。<br />
此外，我将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建立一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设划分之上的早期的民国主体性。 --[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
“黄昏是一天中有预兆的时刻”<br />
“遗忘之夜，却似乎延缓了时间本身，”<br />
“一种中间的状态，在这种状态下，可能是白天的最后一丝阳光”<br />
“仍在上演它的终极奇迹。”<br />
Andreas Huyssen。<br />
《暮光之城》的记忆”<br />
本文通过对中国现代“散文”起源的探究，开辟了20世纪初文学现代性的“朦胧记忆”区，这一“朦胧记忆”区最近一直困扰着中国现代文学领域。从现代汉语的“文章”或“散文”来看，我们如何定义这一体裁?它之所以现代是因为它使用了“白话”吗?它的“现代”是从被称为“散文”开始的吗?五四通用制度是如何建立的?它对文学史的影响是什么?<br />
自20世纪80年代以来，对“五四”以外的中国文学现代性的探索一直在继续。<br />
在对中国文学现代性的学术反思中，最突出的是Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova对晚清中国现代文学起源的强调(“现代中国文学的起源”，Merle Goldman, ed.，《五四时期的现代中国文学》17-36;世纪之交的小说，Perry Link对鸳鸯蝴蝶小说的开创性研究(《鸳鸯蝴蝶:二十世纪初中国的通俗小说》)，刘子彦对“中庸小说”的倡导，以及最近王大卫对19世纪晚期小说的激动人心的、复杂的解读。在一个更大的背景下，大约在同一时期，这一基本上是北美的学术界从“重写文学史”的理论和实践与《二十世纪中国文学》(陈国秋主编，《中国文学》)的修订，相互影响了迅速变化的中国文学批评。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1990年代后期中国文学舞台上的奇观之一是文华鸭和蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。除了无数版的《蝴蝶小说》在商业上迎合后社会主义都市读者的小说外，还有一些富有同情心的学术评估显然挑战了“五四”教规。自1980年代以来，文学批评的格局迅速变化，标志着批判密码从“革命文学”到“文学现代性”的转变。作为文学现代性的核心价值的“纯文学”（“纯文学”）是由新一代的文学评论家和学者开发的，并与后社会主义的环境am昧地联系在一起：一方面，文学批评是在学术上制度化并在某些智力权威上实践；另一方面，“纯文学”怀疑它的现代主义诗学，这暗示着对现状的颠覆力量。<br />
<br />
在最近几年中，出现了大约十二本经过学术界编辑的蝴蝶文学系列，更不用说其他许多用于商业目的的汇编了。仅举几例：范伯群主编，《中国近代通俗作》《平传丛书》（南京：南京市出版社，1994）；范伯群和范子江，主编，《 yang阳呼迪-李白柳排经编小说说文库》（南京：江苏文艺出版社，1996）。魏绍昌主编，Yuan阳护蝶派立派刘小硕。 （天津：春风文艺出版社，1997）；于润奇编，《清末民初小说集》（北京：中国文联出版公司，1997）。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:47, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
二十世纪九十年代末中国文坛的一个奇观是鸳鸯蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。为了迎合后社会主义城市读者的需求，蝴蝶派小说进行了无数次的再版，还有一些富有同情心的读者也对此重新做出评价，这显然是对五四文学主义发起了挑战。20世纪80年代以来，迅速变化的文学批评格局标志着批判原则从 "革命文学 "转变为 "文学现代性 "。"纯文学"作为文学现代性的核心价值，是由新一代文学批评家和学者发展起来的，并与后社会主义条件下的文学批评进行了暧昧的交锋：一方面，文学批评在学术上被制度化，并由某些权威学者实行；另一方面，"纯文学 "对其现代主义诗学持怀疑态度，意味着它具有对现状的颠覆性力量。[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
<br />
如今，五四学派与蝴蝶学派之间的区别不在于“革命与反动”或“进步与后退”，而在于“雅”（优雅的精英主义）与“俗”（具有共同性的平民主义）方面的讨论。 蝴蝶奖学金以“大众”的名义开辟了一个批判空间，但其代价是高昂的：他们的庇护者只能通过遵守五四文学现代性的规范来获得推崇。 如果说文学现代性的基础（进步的历史或民族文学的前提）仍然是不容置疑的，那么蝴蝶学者只能屈居下等。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
<br />
See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
<br />
<br />
例如，早在1960年代初魏绍昌发表了具有开创性的鸳鸯蝴蝶派书目，使这一派别的研究成为可能。最近他对“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”重新进行了评价，将其亲切地称为“美丽的帽子”。然而，这种隐喻却暗示着五四作家对鸳鸯蝴蝶派扣上“帽子”的再一次辩护。因此，魏先生坚称，哪怕是取得成功的最出色的鸳蝶派作品，论才智，论美学，他们都无法与鲁迅，茅盾和其他现代文学巨人媲美。<br />
此外，到目前为止，人们对鸳蝶派的学术兴趣从未超越小说。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:10, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
<br />
Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1997年，《鸳鸯蝴蝶派文章汇编》（Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi）八卷本丛书出版，蝴蝶文章出现了新的主张。这套丛书在书名中暗含着与五四典籍相抗衡的意思，因为它让人想起了1935年出版的著名的《中国现代文学纲要》十卷本，成为五四文学的不朽之作。这本《蝴蝶散文汇编》的主编袁锦在序言中断言，五四时期之前蝴蝶在散文创作上已经取得了很大的成就。<br />
袁进，《鸳鸯湖底派三文大义》。1909-1949 (上海：东方楚岸中新，1997) 3-4。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 12:37, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
<br />
The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre.<br />
<br />
尽管在20世纪20年代以后，他们大多数都逐渐接受了五四作家用的“散文”这个新概念，他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承着传统文学，尤其是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁强调这些文章的主题和美学要素“体现着现代生活，私人感情，和品位，”他认为蝴蝶散文的文学性和文化都有着自己的来源。<br />
《新文学纲要》起着连接伟大作品的作用，它体现了经典是如何通过定义一种文学流派而形成的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
虽然20世纪20年代以后，他们中的大多数人逐渐接受了“五四”作家有关“散文”的新观念，但他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承传统文学，特别是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁着重指出，《蝴蝶随笔》具有“代表日常生活、私人情感和情趣”的主题和审美特征，并认为《蝴蝶随笔》有其独特的文学和文化根源。《新文学纲要》起着连接“卓越”的作用，因为它展示了经典作品是如何通过定义一种流派而形成的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 05:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
<br />
At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
<br />
For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
<br />
“五四文学运动是现代中国散文形式的诞生地”这一观点至今仍在流行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫(1896-1945)和周作人(1885-1968)在为《纲要》分别编撰的“三文”选集的引言中，对现代散文的一种真实定义进行了解释。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系（如胡适与鲁迅的关系，茅盾与郁达夫的关系），则毁于政治争论，或个人的争吵与侮辱。然而，所有这些，都不妨碍他们在一起创造新的文学神话。他们不可能再回到从前，然而这个巨大的工程无疑给他们每个人提供了作为文学大师重塑五四历史的机会。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:06, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系(例如胡适和鲁迅的关系，茅顿和郁达夫的关系)被政治争论、个人争吵和侮辱所破坏。然而，这一切并没有阻止他们共同创造一个新的文学神话。他们不太可能回到过去的日子，但这个宏大的计划无疑让他们每个人都成为了重塑五四历史的文学大师。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
<br />
妥协是必要的，但事实上，《纲要》不能轻易地作为一个整体加以评估，因为所包括的都是杂七杂八的内容，并且在内容和形式上都有冲突。正如大多数编辑所说，使用白话是新文学的标志，但他们在排除蝴蝶派和上海派(haipai)的共识上有一些缺陷，因为这两个派也用白话文写作;相反，这种排除暗含了对城市主义的道德偏见。毫无疑问，人们作出了巨大的集体努力来重建“新”的概念，这个概念本身至少在理论上是权威的，它与进步的历史、人道主义的普遍性和乌托邦的未来相结合。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
<br />
As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
<br />
正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
<br />
正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代论文的特点时，于强调了论文家在个人，自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代散文的特点时，于强调了散文家在个人、自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:00, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
<br />
尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
<br />
郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
郁和周都认为这种现代化的通用体系是理所当然的。 在周看来，散文代表着新文学的最佳成就，这是因为散文能够以多样，复杂的技巧和风格，展现最广泛的生活画面和个人情感和思考，最终与小说和戏剧相比较也是成功的。 周的不满体现在他追溯现代散文的传统至明晚期的“小品文”，此举表明他亲传统的修正，在五四阵营中是有争议的。 但是他将“散文”视为锶中文体系中不可或缺的一部分，他对形式问题的讨论受到这种系统框架的制约。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:11, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
借由现代化通用体系的这一正典，周和郁都从理性角度来描述散文，定义其语言学与文学特征，以确保散文优越于其他所有体裁。这一断言是基于通用体系的合理性，并且从根本上验证了这一体系是个科学的有机整体。在描述散文的代表性特征时，周用了三个词：“叙述”、“论证”和“表达情感”。而郁则使用了“描绘” "叙述"“说明”和"说理"或"论证"四个词来描绘其特征，更加详尽精致，并且每个词后，在括号里都有其相对等的英文词汇解释。但是郁认为细微不同的阐释也是允许的。以此同时，他也认同其他类别的术语表达，如推理，抒情，描写和记叙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:06, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
在这里，周的“美文”（美文）概念引起了我们的特别关注，因为这涉及到他对该类型的历史推测，但仍暗示了其他观点。 周以时间顺序引用了他发表的文章，展示了他如何孜孜不倦地探索三文作为一种新形式，同时阐述了他自己的体裁理论。 正如他所说的那样，他仍然怀着最初的想法，即论文应与《美文》一样完美，他早在1910年代末就倡导了《美文》。 这种历史追溯似乎不仅是从历史的角度回顾他的见解，事实上，其目的是在新的文化形势下重塑他关于“美学论文”的政治。<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能从自己的记忆中汲取更多的话，他在1935年序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对文学理想的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论写作的意义和使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，他的重要性就体现在这篇长文上。正如他之前所说，这本书揭示了他对“文学性”的最初想法，但更具有启示性的是，这本书在1935年被周忽视了，因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对曾为周所压抑的文学的挖掘，打开了一个“朦胧记忆”的区域，为我的目的服务。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能回忆起更多细节的话，他在1935年所作序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对理想化文学概念的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论文章之义以及其使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，其重要性正如标题所言。这本书揭示了他对美文的最初想法，但令人惊喜的是，周的这一观点早在1935年提出过，但却未得到重视。因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对周树人文学经历的挖掘为我展现了一块“暮光记忆”的区域，对本篇文章的论述大有裨益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
<br />
本文从文章、文学、小说三个方面表明了他在文学方面的探索。从某种意义上说，这也是当时名为文学的战场的缩影。在认同文学话语是重塑民族精神最可行的媒介之一这一当代知识分子共识的同时，周试图通过美化“Literature”这一拉丁词文学来构建文学体系。理想的文章体现在艺术和深情的表达上（难怪这篇文章是用古典语言写的）。为了使“文章”这一概念成为一种新的正宗古典主义，他一方面借鉴西方文论对“文章”进行注释，另一方面又对“文章”等其他有影响的词进行了有力的抨击，比如“文学”或“小说”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超“小说”的功利主义倾向，却又欣然接受，甚至将小说与文章相提并论，惟恐文章在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实各自出现过一次，但却被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎和缺乏审美品质，后者则称不上是一个概念。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:54, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超的“小说”功利主义倾向，但又欣然接受，甚至将其等同于文章，惟恐它在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实都出现过一次，但都被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎且缺乏审美品质，后者则算不上是一个概念。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
<br />
Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
<br />
显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
<br />
While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
<br />
寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
梁启超在1899年至1902年发动的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，不同的文学体裁开始出现。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
1899年至1902年，梁启超发起的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，开启出现不同的文学体裁。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
<br />
正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说理论和实践的出现，而非“文”理论和实践的提出。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice.<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。与梁启超的期望相反，“新小说”仍然与其传统相联系；通过新规则的选择与结合，这一传统为“新小说”提供了接受西方文学技法的可能性。也许梁启超和他的追随者创造了这种模棱两可，因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事）。具有讽刺意味的是，尽管它以”复杂,渗透，生动，彻底“宣称人类领域的能力，它也出于自己的喜爱得到了一种全方位的传统文学种类。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。不如梁启超期待的那样，新小说仍与其传统有着千丝万缕的联系；受新规选择、结合，这一传统为新小说吸收西方文学技巧提供了可能。因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事），所以也许是梁启超及其追随者创造了这种模棱两可。讽刺的是，尽管新小说宣称其具有代表人类所涉及领域的能力，该能力具有“复杂性、穿透性、生动性及彻底性”，新小说同样具有几乎所有传统文学有的文学类型，供人们选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 07:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914.<br />
<br />
“新小说”中有种矛盾，即既要带有拯救中国的崇高使命，又要保留迎合大众需求的“闲谈”风格的传统，这两者的矛盾。但“新小说”的风格并没有偏向“闲谈”风格，直到19世纪10年代中期，掀起了一股城市期刊的浪潮，在此期间，“新小说”倾向于有关亲密关系与个人取乐的内容。这是期望与绝望共存的时期，不仅重塑了大众和私人的范围，在社会有关爱情、婚姻和家庭方面的规定上充斥着传统与现代的冲突。对爱情小说也有新的关注，兼带着学习西方以第一人称叙述的期望，例如自传，情书，日记及忏悔。不出意外的，流行杂志与报纸上充斥着悲伤爱情故事，其中包括1914年畅销书作家徐枕雅的《玉梨魂》（1889-1937）。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs.<br />
<br />
这种怪异的组合-悲剧性的浪漫情怀与作者对青年的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-这似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。 吴双热（1884-1934），又是一位以悲剧性的浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“与大话语（“大说”）相对”，新的欲望和社会需求促使他强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:11, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种奇怪的组合-悲剧性的浪漫故事与作者对青春的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。吴双热（1884-1934），一位以悲剧性浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“大篇幅（大说）的对立面”，他受到新欲的望和社会需求的敦促，强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:05, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
<br />
Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超和林纾背后的知识背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人(后来的鲁迅)在日本期间跟随张太炎，受张太炎的影响，周对文学的陈旧看法是建立在这样一种信念之上的，即从更深更广的范围借鉴中国的过去，学习西方，以此防止出现民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超、林纾的学术背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人（后鲁迅）在留日期间追随章太炎，受章太炎的影响，周的古代文学观建立在这样一种信念上：即从中国过去中汲取教训，以更深刻、更广的范围学习西方，可以防止民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:54, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
<br />
周在20世纪10年代中期对以第一人称来叙事进行了细致的尝试。在传统价值观瓦解后，文学成为压抑心理的发泄渠道，同时也重构了情感和观念结构，为重建民族精神铺平了道路。因此，寻求新的文学体裁必然伴随着知识分子的焦虑。当时，周以《星期六》（Libailiu）走红文坛，这是一本旨在娱乐和教育都市读者的周刊，主要以文学愉悦为原则，旨在表达和调节日常生活欲望和消费心理。这种都市印刷文化的繁荣，标志着它与以往致力于爱国主义和民族精神的小说革命发生了逆转；它的表现更多地集中在私人领域和个人身上，揭示了“闲谈”更为鲜明的特征。从这个意义上说，周对第一人称叙事的大量运用是在城市空间中表现一种自主个体的必然，是期刊文化的重要组成部分。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! <br />
<br />
《九花帘幕》出现于1971年由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中，他从一开始就宣布，这本小说月刊旨在推广“百花”小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这个故事被选为典型的蝴蝶作品:内容空洞贫乏，充满无意义的字句。然而，这种偏颇的批评忽略了这篇短篇小说是“百花”小说的先驱，它出现在一本小说杂志上，早在在五四运动之前就主张“百花”。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1971年，《九花帘幕》在由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中出版，他从一开始就宣布这本小说月刊旨在推广白话小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这部小说被评选为一部典型的蝴蝶作品：“（这本小说）内容空洞贫乏，充满了毫无意义的字句。”然而，这种偏颇的批评忽视了这篇短篇小说是白话小说的先驱，在一本小说杂志上出版，在五四运动之前就提倡白话文！--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s.<br />
<br />
杂乱无章的文学体裁，开启了新的可能性，《九花帘》作为一种自我表征，展现了周作人对主观书写的执着，融合了乳品，情书，自白，虚构自传等元素。在这里，我只简单地展示了周小川对自传和情书这两种第一人称叙事的倾注。周小川所采用的这些形式，无论属于当时的“小说”概念，还是更多地属于今天的“三文”标准，都具有一种特定的抒情性和感性魅力，最能吸引周小川。一种类型是指自传的子体裁--风情回忆录--明清情色传统中的一个丰富多彩的分支，以毛翔的《梅影画室回忆录》和蒋坦的《秋灯回忆录》为代表，其中以《梅影画室回忆录》和《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表。周小川在20世纪20年代编辑出版的《回忆录选》中收录了这些文本。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.”<br />
<br />
另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。周因欧文作品《见闻札记》中的创造力和独特性高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏的就是《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过中国文学的窗口了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，一坡一拐而延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡的超然感（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的钢笔变成了反复无常的龙。”--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。其《见闻札记》一书独具创新与独特性，周高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过过去的中国文学窗口来了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，艰难前进而又延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡超然（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的笔变成了反复无常的龙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:40, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''.<br />
<br />
作为1910年代中期描写爱情悲剧的大师，他写了许多短篇故事，并发表在众多期刊和报纸上；其中，那些以第一人称的角度叙述的故事是最好的。他打破了传统爱情故事的语言和抒情方式，他的爱情故事描述了发生在公园、电车、诊所、电影院等新式公共空间的新的城镇主体。更惹人注意的是，他的译作《欧美名家短篇小说丛刊》在1917年出版，揭示了他在嘈杂的环境中处理个人观点的方式。书中所包含的50个故事，其中26个从第一人称的角度进行叙述。有趣的是，在8篇用方言写的文本中，第一人称的代词用的是“wo”，在剩下的18篇用古典语言写的故事中，第一人称的代词多用“yu”“yu”和“wu”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:05, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability.<br />
<br />
白话小说中“我”一词的选择似乎与“五四”文学中确立“ l”作为男性主观性是相同的，但是它们具有不同的现代逻辑。 在鲁迅的作品中也许还有另一种“翻译的现代性”：白话用词"我"在整个选集中不是绝对的。 周对人称代词的使用不仅包括第一人称代词，还包括第二和第三人称代词，表现出文学主体的混乱状态。 他尝试了同时使用白话文和文言文并把它们放在平等的位置，具有多元化的特点。在新的文学情境中，他着迷于多种可能性，更加致力于利用自己的敏感的语言天赋，使用不同的第一人称代词来适应各种表达方式和风格。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:42, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
<br />
范伯群（Fan Boqun）指出，周小川（Zhou Xiaochuan）对现代文学的早期贡献在于心理文学方面，例如日记、书信体小说等，同时，他的翻译对其创作贡献极大。见“朱，卞，易节经得‘文子劳公'：《周守隽（Zhou Shoujuan)评传》”（文学工作者，在写作、编辑、翻译方面取得卓越成就:《周守隽传》），范伯群编:《中国现代通俗作家丛书》第4卷，177页。如果说这本书是周小川迟来的荣誉的话，那么他1917年翻译的欧美著名短篇小说就是他的另一荣耀。上世纪60年代初他给女儿写的信中表明，他1917年的译作受到了鲁迅的赞赏和民国教育局的嘉奖，但是这一点还是他在上世纪50年代初读周作人的回忆录中知晓的。他的文学生涯被批判为反对新文学的反动潮流后，这一信息才透露出来的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
<br />
The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
<br />
莉迪亚·刘指明“I”的第一人称代词“我”的运用作为现代中国文学中翻译现代化的核心问题。随着wo成为通过跨国文化在阻力很大的前进路线上第一人称代词竞赛的唯一胜利者，男性白话主体性得到了确立（见莉迪亚·刘，154-55）。<br />
<br />
《九花帐里》是作者在新婚夜晚对他新娘的情话,他充满激情,带有情绪和自尊地忏悔着他痛苦的过去，同时表达了他对未来夫妻生活的爱和希望。故事以第三人称开始叙述，描述了作者在城市著名的公园之一，也是园的婚礼是如何举行的，在新婚夜里他的朋友聚在新房里如何打趣这对新人的。 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:13, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，其手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，作者为枕边话剧搭建了舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么体面的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不屑。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:52, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
<br />
这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
<br />
当周承诺满足朋友们对他在第一个晚上“在帘子里”对新娘说的话的好奇心时，他故意将场景从背景转移到主要场景——帘子上。他的婚礼虽然是他私生活的一部分，但已经被鲍天晓和陈叠贤曝光，正如周所提到的，他们写了这件事并将其发表在报纸上。周本人也宣布，他自己的枕边谈话将出现在《画报》上。在公众的注视下，周意识到自己的隐私，他把“帘子”作为中心舞台，即房间的最内部空间;这是大胆的并且是非常规的。在中国人所熟悉的婚姻仪式和象征中，涉及婚房的描述是最性感的和最神秘的，激起了他们的情欲和窥探欲。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax.<br />
在“浮华生活的第六记录里”(浮生六记)，一本经典自传体，沈复(1763-)生动地描绘到，“借着婚烛我看见云的身材和以前一般苗条。当她的面纱被揭开后，我们面面相觑了一下。我们喝了交杯酒，然后一道坐下加入婚宴。我暗自抓住了她在桌下小巧的手。很暖和，很柔软，我的心按耐不住地跳动着。”然而，读者可能会觉得失望，因为这里没有出现他们期待的细节描述。而对于大作家而言，描写新婚夜可以符合读者的期待。比如，在李煜的一篇故事里，新娘给新郎更衣后，他看见新娘是“铁女子”后震惊了，她没有性器官”。在“红楼梦”里面，当宝玉讲新娘的面纱揭开时，发现是宝钗而不是黛玉--他被家里的长辈欺骗了，新娘被调换了。因此，传统婚姻体制的阴暗面被揭开了，小说的悲剧性主题也达到了高潮。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
<br />
From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
<br />
叙述者充满爱意的声音开始说道：“我的凤凰夫人：这是我们结婚的第一晚，这是拉开我们家庭生活帷幕的第一天。无论我们的房间是天堂还是地狱，这部戏都是从现在开始的。 无论我们的生活是悲伤还是幸福，我们今天都会开始我们的剧场。”漫长而充满激情的枕边细语是抒情的和装饰性的，带有言语和意象的修辞手段，如诗对联和平行句子，隐喻和重复，融合了古典和西式的词汇和语法。<br />
新郎说：从现在开始，你成为我的家人； 你胡凤君之名将冠以周姓。自你走进周家门起，你自然会为他的家人做些事情。 家务负担沉重地落在我们身上；<br />
我们应该一起承担：一半在我的肩上，另一半在你的肩上。我们应该结成一颗心来克服我们面前的无数困难。 我的老母亲需要你的优质服务，<br />
多户家庭需要您的精心照顾。如果有时候我感到焦虑，您应该了解我，关心我。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
<br />
Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
<br />
夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
<br />
因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和大男子主义色彩的男性话语感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。通过反复的共鸣，叙述者调整他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具有说服力。 细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”或 询问“您明白了吗”等等。 平行句除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬悦耳地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。 --[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。 通过反复的共鸣，叙述者改变了他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具说服力。细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”以及询问“您是否理解”等。 除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.”<br />
<br />
为了给新娘树立榜样，一家画廊引入了一个举世闻名的一些女性以增加说服力，并结合了情欲和伦理学，东西方的文学作为参照。 托尔斯泰夫人帮助她的丈夫投身于写作，并取得巨大成就。 传说中的女主人公梁红玉与她的丈夫一起击败了在十三世纪来中国的外国入侵者。 这是在不同国家实现文化平衡的一种有说服力的方式：后者是本地爱国者的国际化，而前者则是传统的“贤妻良母”的内在化。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
<br />
In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
<br />
<br />
电影呈现和民国主体性<br />
<br />
在这个故事中，幕布在主题和形式目的表现上起到至关重要的作用。窗帘是一种在夫妻生活中最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一种双重幕布的幻觉，从而为表达双重声音起到作用。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又向私人（演员）和公众（观众）交谈。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
电影表现和共和主体性<br />
<br />
在这个故事中，幕布对主题和形式至关重要。幕布是一件在夫妻生活中的最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一件双重幕布的幻觉，从而促进双重声音。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又与私人和共同听众对话。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:43, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
<br />
“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=10649820201130 trans2020-11-30T01:36:48Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Dan 彭丹 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
<br />
Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years.<br />
<br />
这是一个很好的例子，证明美食通常是由国家特色来定义的（但也适用于更小的地区间）。意大利美食的存在是无可争议的，但是没有必要为了地道的意大利美食而专程去一趟。当然也有非常多具有欧洲特色版本的中国美食（例如加上很浓的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
<br />
饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎是很难被改变的。尽管这位作家在中国待了很长的时间，但还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:55, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
要阐明美食通常由国界定义（在较小地区中也适用），这是个很好的例子。意大利菜的存在毋庸置疑，但不一定要去意大利才能吃到地道的意大利菜。当然还一直有欧化的中国菜肴（如加上浓郁的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
<br />
饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎很难改变，就算作者在中国待了数年，也还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
<br />
Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
<br />
北京大学食堂将意大利肉酱面作为一道午餐，在没吃到这顿饭之前，人们还是非常开心的。显然，只有外观保留了下来，意大利面的外观看起来与食谱上非常的相似，然而，它的味道却是糟糕至极，显然，厨师将番茄当作水果而不是蔬菜来烹饪的，面条煮得时间也过长。<br />
<br />
同样企业中也存在这种文化。例如，德国企业在许多国家运行得有条不紊的，即使同一件产品的生产过程也因国家而异，但是在世界范围内却不断的标准化，特别是一个企业在几个国家中拥有专利过程时。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
当设定相同的任务时，即设计街道清洁车，这会带来有趣的国家解决方案。<br />
<br />
[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
<br />
街道清洁车 a)中国<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
<br />
街道清洁车 b)<br />
<br />
Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
<br />
Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代以来，作者亲身体验了在美国的一家中外软件公司（如PC Express，后来在洛杉矶的TwinBridge）、中国本土的一家软件公司（如北京的新天地科技有限公司(Suntendy)）、中国的一家德国公司和一家中德混合公司工作的不同之处。这些亲身经历已写入这本手册。<br />
<br />
因此，这里的“文化”一词在很大程度上与传统或哲学同义，传统通常与过去有关，哲学则往往反映简化为几个原则的文化，因而已经有意识地加以控制且带有目的论色彩。基于这些原因，作者在目前的语境中选择了“文化”一词。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:28, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
<br />
In this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
<br />
The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
<br />
If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error.<br />
方法/视角<br />
工匠文化和商人文化的区分已经确立了有一段时间。这意味着在经济方面将会更多的精力放在开发尽可能完美的产品上，并不断地进行改善。经销商文化在尽可能以最低价格的购入和最高价格的售出之间所获得的利益上赋予更多的价值。我们在检查一个典型的投诉案例时，这种区别尤为明显：<br />
<br />
一位顾客若是抱怨手工艺文化中的产品，那么销售员就会考虑提供无差错交换产品或是给予经济补偿，并进一步报道产品错误， 可能会将产品送回公司以便找出错误。如果产品在好几处设备上都发生错误，原则上让开发部门消除错误。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
方法/观点<br />
工匠文化与商人文化的区分由来已久，这意味着在一个经济体中，将产品做到尽善尽美，不断提升产品质量会得到重点关注。经销商文化则将重点放在以尽可能便宜的价格购入和进可能贵的价格售出获得收益上。我们仔细研究一个典型投诉案例时，这种区别更加显而易见:<br />
在工匠文化中，顾客投诉会让店员很担忧，店员会主动退换成质量良好的商品或者给予资金赔偿，进一步通知产品的差错，尽可能地将产品送回，检验差错，如果几个产品都出现了差错，原则上会让研发部门消除差错。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
<br />
Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
<br />
Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
<br />
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed.<br />
<br />
在经销商文化中，服务和客户的满意度更为重要，在这里，客户是否生气以及对客户的投诉做出道歉和相应的补偿就显得尤为重要。而向制造商反馈是次要的。<br />
以下是一些属于相关类别的国家：<br />
工匠文化 零售商文化<br />
德国，法国，波兰，美国，中国，韩国<br />
生产文化和设计文化之间还有另一个区别。<br />
在19，20世纪，美国的机械工程发展了生产文化，而德国产生了建筑文化。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:06, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
<br />
In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
<br />
在德国，弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒率先在美国进行了合理化的各项工作，很快就为大众所接受，其中包括在1904年在柏林，1908年在亚琛以及1910年在汉诺威依次设立了工商管理部主任。因此，我认同库恩泽（Kunze)在2008年提出的观点，当时他对科斯关于1914年之前德国生产文化落后的看法是持反对意见的。<br />
<br />
在德国，作为一种工匠文化，产品在早期就注重多样性，并通过不断优化来实现。即使是在团队中，焦点仍是那些高素质的人，他们独立完成团队任务并承担相应的责任。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:21, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
<br />
After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
<br />
日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，日本不像德国那样通过马歇尔计划获得大量融资。出于自身需要，日本经济尽己所能，实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。因此，一种独特的民族生产文化应运而生，其特征如下：<br />
<br />
现代日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
<br />
日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
<br />
1.精益生产（无污染生产得以推广）<br />
<br />
2.准时生产/有序生产（高标准生产/高要求生产）<br />
<br />
3.质量圈/今井正明优化团队<br />
<br />
4.近期发展：多部门结构和去中央集权化--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，日本不像德国那样通过诸如马歇尔计划等契机获得大量融资。迫于经济压力，日本竭尽所能实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。这也催生了一种独特的民族生产文化，其总体特征如下：<br />
<br />
现代日本生产文化<br />
<br />
二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
<br />
日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
=＞国际讨论，分析和效仿的结果<br />
<br />
1. 精益化生产（推广零污染生产）<br />
<br />
2. 准时制生产/有序生产（按需生产）<br />
<br />
3. 质量研讨小组/优化改善小组<br />
<br />
4. 近期发展：多部门结构和权力下放--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
<br />
The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
<br />
如今，日本的生产理念被认为是新生产技术的带头人，以及现代工业国家的基准。丰田生产体系的仰慕者和效仿者，保时捷前老板文德林•魏德金（Wendelin Wiedeking）表示：“丰田是一致性的代名词”。它是衡量工厂现代化程度的国际标准。<br />
<br />
日本的生产模式认为，仓储成本的产生主要是由于供大于求。因此，开发了确保仅当客户购买产品时才（再）生产产品的技术（按需生产）。生产单个产品的较高成本可以通过节省产品的中间存储（对于缓慢移动的产品为最终存储）来弥补。如今，在书籍制作等领域，该做法已成功使用。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 14:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available.<br />
<br />
然而，更重要的是要尽可能不去阻碍生产活动，如果有，则需要尽快消除。一个典型的现象是工厂因为某些待安装的材料未及时运输到位导致停工。在工厂，流水线生产中一台机器出了问题，整个生产都会停止。于是，日本的生产理念便起到作用。该理念旨在训练每一名员工能够自行修复小缺陷，并承担修复的责任。至于大一点的问题，则由团队来解决。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:01, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些小缺陷不会第一时间出现，一旦出现，不仅要修复缺陷，而且要想出避免缺陷再次发生的办法，即：他们不仅要修复缺陷，而且要找出缺陷出现的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产中断的情况可能会出现。 然而在理想情况下，产量会根据需求进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地减慢或加快，最重要的是保证生产无间断且不发生任何故障。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会首先出现，并且不仅要修复缺陷，而且还考虑一种方法，来确保将来不会出现这种缺陷，即他们不仅要修复缺陷，还要解决缺陷的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，可以想象，生产也会中断。理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前需求的强劲程度，相应地降低或加快生产速度。最重要的是生产得不间断且无故障。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture.<br />
<br />
参与生产过程的员工可以提出自己的创新想法，日本的奖励制度与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在该想法实现之前，提出这个想法的人立即就得到一笔相关的钱，不需要重重审批。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或是持续改善团队。这些是比较小的工作组，负责生产环节的一小部分。他们应该在一开始就碰个面，然后至少每周定期开一次会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
<br />
最近，人们也提到了日本生产文化的其他因素，例如多部门结构和权力下放机制。它们也同样存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:03, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的雇员个人提出的创新也有类似的作用。在这里，重要的是，有想法的人在想法实施之前很久就能立即无官僚主义地得到一笔相关的资金。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或Kaizen小组。这些是较小的工作小组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开一次会，然后定期至少每周开一次会，公开讨论改进的建议。<br />
<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他要素也被提及，如多部门结构和分权。美国的生产文化中也有这些内容。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的个体员工所引入的创新的运作方式与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在想法实现之前，有想法的人立即得到一笔相关的钱，而不是官僚作风。<br />
另一个要素是质量循环或改善团队。这些是较小的工作组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开会一次，然后每周至少定期开会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他因素也被提到，例如多部门结构和权力下放。它们也存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
<br />
因此，今天的中国再次成为世界领先的经济体（从公元0年到公元1200年）。中国生产文化的一个特点就是它的连续性。几千年来，中国一直不间断地生产丝绸、茶叶、瓷器等产品。尽管在公元1200年至2000年期间，中国的生产并不是世界领先的，但在很长一段时间内，它基本上保持在一个稳定的水平上，才赶上了工业革命的迅速发展。如此悠久的生产文化在世界范围内是无与伦比的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the <br />
<br />
有一点仍然值得牢记，那就是中国正再一次成为经济领导国，但是在这个人口大国，并非所有的中国人都能从这个经济领导地位中获得相等的利益。当将绝对数据（如国内生产总值或与国内生产总值增长相关的数据）与相对数据（如人均国内生产总值）进行比较时，这种现象就很显而易见了。这里有一个类似的比较：<br />
<br />
[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
<br />
I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
<br />
我想由以下几个问题来引出我对生产文化的重要性的分析：<br />
<br />
Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
<br />
生产文化和（经济的）快速增长之间有联系吗？它是否是（经济）增长的原因？<br />
<br />
Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
<br />
显然，中国的生产文化还没有成为当代生产文化的一个国际模板。其原因是生产文化所具有的文化特异性吗？还有其他原因吗？其他原因又是否合理呢？<br />
<br />
In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
<br />
为了找到回答这些问题的线索，下面对中国生产文化进行了考察与定义。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:35, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
<br />
·Silk<br />
<br />
·Tea<br />
<br />
·Spices<br />
<br />
·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
<br />
·Jade<br />
<br />
·Bronze<br />
<br />
·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
<br />
·Iron<br />
<br />
·Paper<br />
<br />
·Gunpowder<br />
<br />
·Furs etc. <br />
<br />
The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
<br />
中国生产文化的真实性<br />
丝绸之路大约在公元前5世纪就有记载了，但是基因分析证明，大约在公元前1万年左右，丝绸之路就用来在双边贸易中，销售栽培植物与家养动物了。这条贸易之路也证明了文化交流的可能性。以下中国制造的产品在这条贸易之路上进行交易：<br />
·丝绸<br />
·茶叶<br />
·香料 <br />
·陶瓷<br />
·玉器<br />
·青铜器<br />
·漆器<br />
·铁<br />
·纸<br />
·火药<br />
·毛皮等<br />
当然，丝绸之路是双向的，黄金、宝石和玻璃很长一段时间都是从中国进口的。如果新丝绸之路能与铁路一起建成，将比目前的海运集装箱所需的运输成本和运输时间低好几倍。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:21, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
<br />
中国拥有世界上最大的商船--军舰，可容纳4000吨货物，中国也在海上贸易中占据了数百年的主导地位。早在公元前3世纪，中国就修建了皇帝运河，用于内河航运。<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
<br />
In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
ing时期的垃圾（14世纪）。<br />
<br />
从基督诞生到公元1200年，中国的国内生产总值是世界上最高的。直到1200年，中国才被西欧超越。<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
<br />
在1200年到2000年之间，中国远远落后于西方，成为发展中国家。 然而，从1700年至今，与美国和欧洲一样，中国也经历了人口爆炸。<br />
<br />
[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
<br />
While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
<br />
18世纪末，得益于工业革命，欧洲确保了更多人口的粮食供应。虽然在那时中国几乎处于休眠状态，但是到了20世纪，中国以迅雷不及掩耳之势赶上了欧洲：1900年，中国第一家工厂诞生；1950年，中央计划的大型生产单位出现；2000年私人企业产生，最初主要是合资企业，但这也导致了国内发展的不平衡。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:57, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
<br />
In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
<br />
In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
<br />
·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
<br />
·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings. <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
<br />
Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
<br />
'''Made in China'''<br />
<br />
The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
<br />
"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，如今中国的生产文化已不再封闭，比起日本受到西方文化的影响，中国受到历史影响的程度更深。甚至在21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商科对其进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来区别德国的劣质产品。直到后来，由于质量的提高，“德国制造”才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价、低工资、劣质、大规模生产和剽窃、等级观念以及廉价劳动力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:48, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天的中国生产文化不再纯正了，而且比日本的西方文化更受历史的影响。<br />
<br />
甚至连21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商学院进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来把本国的产品与德国的劣质产品区别开。直到后来，由于质量的提高，这个罪恶的标记才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价产品、低工资、低质量、大规模生产、抄袭、等级管理以及像“蚁族”一样的廉价劳动力。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
<br />
1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
<br />
2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
<br />
3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
<br />
但是实际上这个印象也只是停留在中国第一次大量生产的时候；在此期间的情形已经变了。<br />
<br />
1.在21世纪初，伴随着工资的极度增加，中国劳动市场第一次出现饱和。同时，支付给相对合格的一名中国工程师一天的工资和西方工业国家的是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2.之前最重要的生产部门现在已被作为经济领域中最重要的服务部门所取代。<br />
<br />
3.西方公司在中国一向都有质量保证的规则，中国也正在向西方学习。总所周知的劣质中国产品也已不再出现。在许多公司中，质量保证这一规则正在被实行。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:14, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但事实上，这只是对中国第一次大规模生产的早期印象而已；与此同时，情况在不断地变化。<br />
<br />
1 在21世纪初，中国的劳动市场第一次接近于饱和状态，这是由于工资的急剧增加。同时，一名合格的中国工程师的工资和西方工业国家的工资是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2 服务业逐渐替代了早些年最重要的生产部门作为重要的经济组成部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
3 中国现在也正在学习西方国家公司的质量保障规则，中国的产品很差这一传言已经成为了过去式了。如今在大部分的公司，质量保障这一规章用于实践。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:43, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
<br />
6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
<br />
[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4，除了复制西方的产品，中国也已经有了在国内进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机和笔记本电脑等）。<br />
<br />
5，中国公司如今正在全世界地购买一些掌握技术的公司（IBM笔记本部门=>联想‘沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6，由于极大地需求，中国公司的管理人员几乎把那些介绍了西方管理规则的畅销书买完了，并且带着好奇心和热情把这些规则应用于实践，比如说西方比较盛行的小组会议。如今在中国的公司，开会的频率远远高于德国（中国一天5次会议，而德国一天1-2次会议）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:26, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.除了再生产西方的产品，中国进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机，笔记本电脑等）已经可以买到。<br />
<br />
5.中国公司现在正在世界各地收购具备所需技术的公司（IBM的笔记本部门--联想、沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6.由于庞大的渴求，中国公司的管理人员读完了所有讲述西方管理细则的畅销书，并带着极大的好奇心和热情将这些细则运用于实践之中，例如，小组会议。如今相较于德国公司来说，小组会议在中国公司更加的普遍。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''Hierarchy'''<br />
<br />
Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
<br />
'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
<br />
In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
<br />
In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
<br />
'''Concept of Face'''<br />
<br />
For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
<br />
哥哥的地位自然比弟弟高。在汉语中，亲属称谓严格分为“长”和“幼”。前一个形容词“alter（改变）”在亲密形式中是一个敬语。<br />
在商业生活中，年长的员工也会因为他们的生活经历而受到尊重（也可能是因为他们所拥有的庞大关系网）。一个积极的副作用是这种经验仍然存在于公司。新的研究还显示，西方国家的老员工往往被低估，他们的经验必须得到更多的利用，知识才能留在公司。<br />
<br />
”面子的概念“<br />
面子这个概念是为了保护个人，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的。为此，公司遵守不成文的规则（制度）：不要在大众面前批评别人。如果必须进行批评，那么就委婉间接的说出来。一个人的请求不会被直接拒绝，我们不会直接说“不！”中国人对此的细微差别可能会有相应的分类。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“面子的概念<br />
面子之所以存在，是为了自我保护，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的也是如此。为此，公司有个不成文的规定：不要当众批评别人。如果必须要批评，那就婉约一点。我们不会直接拒绝别人的请求，不会直接说“不。”中国人对于这一观念极为敏感，他们“或许”知道怎样进行区分才能避免伤害。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
<br />
Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
<br />
One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
<br />
传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司的总经理职位，甚至是高级职位，最好都是那些能被任命者信任的人。最大的信任是由家庭关系给予的,或者是通过共同的生活阶段，例如出生在同一个村庄，在同一所学校，同一个俱乐部，等等。当然，职业资格也有助于建立信任，但这种信任不是特别重要。<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是党指定的，这些职位是由相应的干部结合而成的。<br />
这种任命政策的一个后果是领导普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司中的总经理及高级职位通常任命者所信任的。家庭关系给人最大的信任，比如家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:51, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures.<br />
从经济角度来说，这也是一个紧急情况，尤其是对那些管理着更有能力的下属的老板们来说。因此，结合表层含义，一方面，老板们不得不隐藏自己的无能，另一方面又想保住自己的位置，也就是说，他们面临着做出正确决策的巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板与专家非正式地讨论了可能的替代方案。最终，他获得了广泛的意见，并独自做出了对他来说最好的决定。桂冠实际上是别人的，这一事实仍未明说；它深厚了相关人员间的人情关系。一旦老板做出决定并传达给员工，员工就会执行，不会因为等级结构而产生矛盾。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在经济领域，这也是一种紧急情况，尤其当老板手下有着更为出色的员工时。一想到面子理念，老板一方面会掩盖自己的无能，另一方面又想捍卫自己的地位。他们做出正确决策时面临巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板和专家们随意讨论可行的替代性方案。结果是，老板听取了大量意见，做出了最利于其自身的决策。事实上，功劳属于那些默默献言的专家们。此举促进了相关人员间的人情往来。一旦老板制定并传达某个决策，员工们考虑到公司等级结构，便毫无异议地执行。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
<br />
Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
<br />
The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
<br />
1. Hong Kong <br />
<br />
2. China<br />
<br />
3. USA<br />
<br />
4. Germany<br />
<br />
当下级认为某个上级的决定是错误的，他可能不会告知老板。然而，当层级结构不能适应（共同的休闲活动或类似问题上），下级就会寻求机会间接地将错误的决定传递给老板。<br />
<br />
每天的会议 C> USA> D<br />
<br />
中国开会的频率比德国高的多。对所选的4个国家或地区的顺序排名如下：<br />
<br />
1. 香港<br />
<br />
2. 中国<br />
<br />
3. 美国<br />
<br />
4. 德国<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
<br />
[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
<br />
1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化的形式及其原因<br />
<br />
专业技术：羞耻/ 防卫/ 大卫对抗歌利亚一样/ 基于国家利益的工业间谍活动 专业技术盗窃<br />
<br />
创新：<br />
<br />
竞争：<br />
<br />
国家管控：<br />
<br />
法律：<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化有以下的特征：<br />
<br />
1. 在专业技术领域，中国落后于西方工业国家和日本，这让中国人民感到羞耻。许多中国人认为自己处于守势，中国与美国、日本的关系就像大卫对抗歌利亚一样，也因此将基于广义国家利益的工业间谍活动和专门技术盗窃视为合理。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
<br />
China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
<br />
The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
<br />
中国历来以发明帝国著称，所以活版印刷、火药、瓷器等发明的时间比世界上其他地方的类似发明要早得多。然而，这些发明往往不是批量生产的，而是大规模生产的，例如在欧洲，火药促使了手枪和大炮的生产。可以夸张地说，火药被贵族们用来代替新年的烟花。这显示了中国特色，即创新能力与市场推广能力同时不足。<br />
在很大程度上工业革命也与中国擦肩而过。因为中国和欧洲一样，由于卫生和医疗条件的改善，人口激增，但与此同时，食品生产的自动化并没有超越制造业，中国的生活水平落后了。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:01, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模仿几乎和原创一样重要。因此，前几世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校体制都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个原因可能就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模本几乎和原本一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校系统都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个证据就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿在中国一直很受重视。 一份好的副本几乎和原件一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和今天的学校制度都强烈倾向于再生产，而不是创造。其中一个原因可能是人物数量众多，需要学生长年累月的记忆。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
<br />
When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
<br />
中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与西方相比，中国的版权观念不那么根深蒂固。<br />
当第一次鸦片战争的炮声把中国人从睡梦中惊醒的时候，他们没有进行自己的研究和开发是非常遗憾的。即使中国人可以忽略外国侵略者的暴力，但却羡慕他们的技术优势，从那时起，他们开始宣传向外国人学习技术并加以复制，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和主权。这种嫉妒感产生了一种极端的动机，既模仿别人的优越感，又最终超越别人。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
<br />
The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
<br />
Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
<br />
The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
<br />
At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
1978年以来的改革开放政策导致20世纪末外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为了保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业必须在当地提供一定比例的产品。因此，他们必须寻找能够向生产链提供零部件的中国供应商。这促进了当地工业的发展，也促进了技术的转让。<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 10:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. 国家管控'''<br />
<br />
1978年改革开放以来，直到20世纪末，外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业生产产品必须有一定比例的当地产品。因此，这些公司必须寻找中国的供应商以为生产链提供零部件，这促进了当地产业发展和技术转让。<br />
<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这进一步加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
<br />
'''5. Legal system'''<br />
<br />
The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
<br />
Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry.<br />
<br />
然而，法规（例如，合资企业法）以及法庭判决都有利于国内企业。中国也已经建立起一种国家资本主义，用来资助企业、支持出于世界市场中的国内企业、为海外投资提供资助。除此之外，版权侵权法规和企业情报刺探（包括军民联合）都促使中国经济发展。在特朗普的治理下，美国提出了“美国第一”的保护主义策略，以此作为回应。<br />
<br />
'''5.法律体系'''<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系不是彼此独立，互不相关的。它是应整个国家的要求而实行的。<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的财政实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但是同时觉得这些公司会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:03, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系并非独立存在，而是顺应国家需要而实行的。<br />
<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的经济实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但又怕它们会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 04:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
<br />
This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
<br />
'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``必要是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
效率提高的原因是，为全世界所熟知的日式管理文化或生产文化，在第二次世界大战后，缺乏资金购置新机器。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``需求是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
在第二次世界大战后，日本缺乏资金购置新机器从而导致了效率的提高，这也是众所周知的日式管理文化或生产文化。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
<br />
In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
<br />
The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
<br />
专业能力往往起不到任何作用。但这也发生了一代人的变化;最初，中央委员会的最高领导干部没有在苏联接受过教育或培训；20世纪80年代他们被技术官僚取代了；在21世纪初，他们中的许多人拥有美国大学学位。<br />
<br />
在商业领域，中国最大国有企业的领导干部仍由党授予。<br />
<br />
管理者们在职业上的无能产生了一种困境，如果你不想被一个更有专业能力的管理者取代，就必须在日常工作中采用一种复杂的策略去应对。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
<br />
·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
<br />
·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
<br />
·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
<br />
This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships.<br />
<br />
该战略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司的专家进行非正式协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
该策略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司真正的专家进行非正式的协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:49, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
<br />
A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二人的第三人，第二人随后只建立联系，然后退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于困乏的工业革命和市场缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有形成自己的研发传统。他们没有长期进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿并最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二个人的第三人，而第二个人只是建立联系，然后就退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于工业革命停滞不前，市场上缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有建立起自己的研发传统。在很长一段时间里，研究者们没有进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿他们，最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
<br />
“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
在中国生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。在过去的几十年中，它们已经习惯与废料一同出售。 由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废品。 外国投资者首先必须在中国重申质量保证理念。 由于中国的激烈竞争以及对世界市场价格和标准的遵循，质量保证现已在中国内部化。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球工业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。几十年里，他们已经习惯了和废品一起销售。由于劳动力成本低，第一批在中国生产商品的工厂也相应地交付了次品。外国投资者首先不得不在中国重新引入质量保证概念。由于中国市场的激烈竞争和对世界市场价格和标准的追求，质量保证在中国已经内化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
<br />
In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
<br />
通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
<br />
In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
与这些运动类似，这些概念的引入具有恒久的主张，但只风靡了小段时间。 这种基于当前管理战略趋势的管理模式，也可以称为游击管理，遵循韩博天的“游击政治”概念。<br />
在中国，保密文化（代表证、访问限制）是普遍存在的，尤其是在高科技公司中，这与美国完全相同。 在中国，这种文化只是简单的从美国复制而来，当然也是因为中国在国外的工业间谍活动的发现，例如技术。 在德国公司中，往往得不到充分的保护，不受第三方的访问。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:50, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
在所有这些行为中，面孔意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)，这主要是由于生产压力高导致的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:22, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
在所有这些行为中，面子意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力，主要是因为生产压力高。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:59, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点就在于，即使已经成年了，年轻人仍然可以快乐的玩耍，别人也不会认为他们很可笑。如果野心是尽可能地模仿外国产品甚至是超越它并投入实施，例如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学，那么玩的乐趣是无拘无束的。<br />
新的游戏规则很快被接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经导致了一种问题：当这个机制需要改变的时候总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点是：即使已经成年了，他们仍然玩得滑稽可笑，但他们自己却不会使人觉得很荒唐。如果他们是立志于效仿国外同样的产品甚至是超越它并将如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学等投入实施，那么玩的乐趣就无穷无尽。<br />
<br />
新的游戏规则很快就被人们所接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经造成一种局面：当需要改变的时候，总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的积极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•网络<br />
<br />
•中国企业的优惠待遇（例如在投标、竞争中，在合资企业等企业集团内）<br />
<br />
•对科技的狂热<br />
<br />
•残酷，这反过来又促进了竞争<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的消极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•扭曲竞争<br />
<br />
•助长管理职位的不称职<br />
<br />
•优先个人利益而不是非现金利益，从根本上来说对生产文化是消极的<br />
<br />
•仪式/惯例（面子、批评、地位等）<br />
<br />
•不透明的国家赞助和腐败--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
2020年设立的由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家组成的的自由贸易区，与建议设立的由美国或者欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同是，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在哪些方面可以作为管理和产业文化的国际标杆？'''<br />
<br />
由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家在2020年设立的自由贸易区，与建议由美国或欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同在于，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在管理和产业文化在哪些方面可以称为国际标杆？'''--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人在公司中的等级地位无关紧要，只有他们的专业能力。对最有能力的人提出质疑是可能的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉和奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行的世界，即所谓的个人关系系统中。由于这种脱钩，负责任的决策者并不介意质疑其他不负责任但更有能力的同事/员工/外人。同时，同事/员工/外部人员也有动力给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他可以在平行世界中得分。<br />
<br />
结果是有理有据，被接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人与其在公司的级别地位是不相关的，与之相关的仅仅是他的能力。质疑最有能力的人是可取的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行世界，即所谓的人际关系系统中。基于关系系统的分离，决策者也就不介意质疑其他不负责任但是能力更强的同事、员工或者外人。同时，这些人也会更有动力去给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他们会在这个平行世界中得分。<br />
最终得到有理有据并且可以接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other. <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression.<br />
<br />
我们要重点注意以下三个方面：<br />
1、最终目标的实现不能否定其他方面的工作，甚至恶化整个大局，因为同事们都沉迷于游戏。新型的管理或生产策略在中国员工看来都是见怪不怪了，他们从政治或教育运动（如交通教育）中了解到这一点。<br />
二要牢记理解相关哲学。说这一点重要，是因为当重要的西方管理文化进入中国时，正确的中文术语应首要出现以顺应潮流，比如英式表达。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但重要的是要注意这三个方面：<br />
1.实际的目标应该在不忽视工作的其他方面的情况下实现，因为同事们都沉迷于玩乐会使整体的结果恶化。对中国员工来说，引入新的管理或生产策略并不是什么新鲜事，他们从政治或教育导向的活动（如交通教育）中已经了解到这一点。必须牢记的第二个方面是对相应的哲学方面的理解，这一点很重要，例如，在向中国引进西方管理文化时，最重要的是首先找到正确的中文术语，如英式表达。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees.<br />
<br />
翻译不正确或根本没有翻译的术语会带来成功信息，即引入了一个新系统，而引入了该系统所理解的内容。<br />
<br />
在这情形下必须考虑的第三个方面是可持续性。许多引入的新概念在几周后就被遗忘而老一套又回来了。只有个别的，通常是高级员工还记得新引进的东西，偶尔也会提到，但不能强加在他们的员工身上。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译错误或根本没有翻译的术语也会有所成果，其引入了一个新系统，并引入了该系统所理解的内容。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，可持续性是必须考虑的第三个方面。许多引入的新概念在几周后就为人们所遗忘，取而代之的是重蹈覆辙的老一套概念。只有个别人，通常是高层还记得新引进的东西，他们偶尔也会提起，但却无法强迫他们的员工也记得。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
与工作日程（例如日常使用的计算机工作界面）相结合的过程描述系统非常有用，员工可以按照给定的路径来制定或执行决策或流程。<br />
<br />
总而言之，游戏化的方法减少了接触新鲜事物的恐惧，工作日程多样化，员工也能进一步获得资格。<br />
<br />
3.产品开发的速度和灵活性<br />
<br />
中国制造业的一个标志是产品加工和发展的速度之快，以及它们对不断变化的客户要求或市场条件作出的快速反应。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。处在本国相对迟缓的生产环境下的西方企业可以落户中国来学习这些品质，并从这些经验中获益。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:07, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
<br />
最初的特征物流。正如这张图片所示，现有的原始手段被开发到了极致，能够驾驭极端的自然方式最令人钦佩。<br />
<br />
过去很长一段时间，中国的生产力比物流发展更快。到21世纪初期，快递业务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才追赶上来。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
原始功能是物流。如图所示，现有的原始手段得到最大限度的利用。令人钦佩的是控制极端情况的过程方法。<br />
<br />
长期以来，中国的生产能力快于物流业的发展。在21世纪初，送货服务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才开始迎头赶上。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German. <br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany. <br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
<br />
来自中国大陆、台湾、英国以及德国的14位研究中国文学的学者参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中令人着迷的表达。语言没有边界：大会虽用英文举行，但也破例宣读了部分含有英文摘要的中文论文。<br />
<br />
按照大会的流程，这些论文中的一部分会组成一本文集。这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版，在2000年由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能进行实时邮件讨论，并且能在网站上看到不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
来自美国、中国台湾、英国和德国的14位中国文学领域的学者都参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中有趣的现象。语言无边界：大会除了部分论文是含有英文摘要的中文论文之外，其余都是用英文展开的。<br />
<br />
会议过程中的论文选集发到人们手中，这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版。在2000年12月由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能借助邮件展开激烈的讨论，并且能在网站上获取不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
<br />
这本书中含有大部分会议所用论文，因此，欢迎每位与会者给出反馈。我第一次进行这种自由的学术交流是在美国，当时李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者到哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习，时长为1998到1999年。这期期刊的撰写者只能吸引中国读者的注意力，但阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:28, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
本书中有大部分的会议论文，欢迎大家给予反馈。我第一次体验这种自由的知识交流是在美国，当时是1998年到1999年，李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者留在哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习。<br />
<br />
本书的编者只能介绍这种中式体裁和吸引读者对这种中式体裁的注意，而阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:<br />
<br />
中国散文的繁荣发展<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
加速建设现代化时期、西学东渐时期（1920至1930年代）、经济解放之一时期（1980至1990年代）论文出版出现繁荣发展。这在一定程度上得益于新的杂志和丛书的出现，它们主要被用作当代散文家的工具。这种媒介的出现表现出明显的趋势：于中国作者和读者而言，论文是一种压制和增长兴趣的媒介类型。<br />
<br />
在1990年代中期，中国的论文产量和受欢迎程度上升的三个原因是：--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
·a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
20世纪最后20年中，小品文成了知识分子和那些读日报的普罗大众沟通的主要媒介，由此，这种文学体裁开始以小篇幅和通用语将精英分子的思想传播开来，成为了大众文化和精英文化间的纽带。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在二十世纪最后二十年中，小品文成了知识分子话语圈和日报读者群的主要沟通媒介。因此，我们拥有了一种文学体裁，这种体裁能用小篇幅传播精英分子的思想，也能充当大众文化和精英文化之间的纽带。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:43, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
主题:“让我们给这篇文章在中国文学中指定一个合适的位置!”<br />
吴漠汀<br />
摘要<br />
20世纪的选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，勾勒出了一幅中国文学的不完整图景:缺乏散文的体裁。我们习惯于C.T. Hsia， Průšek,和Anderson建立的叙事学，这让中国文学在小说的面前显得黯然失色。民国初期，五四运动确立了主导叙事之后，小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，使后者得到了重视。<br />
我将列举几点原因来解释为什么散文实际上在数量上如小说和诗歌一样多，以及为什么它应该被高度重视。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:36, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
这篇文章对整个中国社会产生了直接的影响。散文体裁的影响，它的直接语言，它与生活的联系，以及它通过报纸直接与个人读者接触，比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。<br />
这篇文章还比诗歌和小说更能反映社会趋势。个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，这在内容和形式上都是有限的。短小的散文体现了短暂的生命力，可以在上班的地铁上阅读，在那里，诗歌可能不会如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
这篇文章对中国社会有着直接的历史影响。散文体裁以其简明的语言，与生活的联系，能以报纸为媒介直接影响到作为个体的读者，它比小说或诗歌所产生的间接影响更大。<br />
比起诗歌和小说，这篇文章更能反映社会趋势。相较于诗歌在内容和形式上的受限，散文能将个人主义更直接地表现出来。短小精悍的散文体现了快餐文化，在上班的地铁上也方便阅读，然而诗歌却不大可能如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
<br />
•与诗歌相比，论文占人口的比例更大，不需要花大量时间阅读小说。论文本身是一种高度现实的类型，即使不仅仅是今天的类型。<br />
<br />
•论文的产量超过小说的产量。<br />
<br />
如果考虑到这篇论文，中国文学的图画能否保持不变？ 如上所述，论文的真实价值与当前价值之间存在很大的反差。让我们为论文分配适当的位置！--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
散文比诗歌更受欢迎，也不像小说一样要花大量时间阅读。如果散文不只是一种当代体裁的话，那么它本身也是一种高度现实性的体裁。<br />
•散文的产量超过了小说的产量。<br />
如果我们把散文考虑进去，那么中国文学的版块能保持不变吗?如上所述，在散文的真实价值和当前价值之间存在很大差别。让我们正确看待散文吧!--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
'''未知的体裁'''<br />
<br />
由20世纪选集和文集讲述的文学历史叙事所绘画出的中国文学图景并不完整：即散文体裁的缺失。长期以来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）忽视了这种体裁的优点：然而，自从五四运动确立主叙事、民国初期重视小说文学和创作通俗化以来，散文的兄长--小说就一直受到珍视。现代选集会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学作品的支柱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:10, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
···未知体裁···<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所记叙的文学史，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景：散文的体裁是缺乏的。长期以来，散文作为一种功利性文体被忽视（马格里斯1949年，施寒微1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年）；而它的兄长--小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作白话化以来，在五四运动确立的总叙事之后，一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信，诗歌、小说、戏剧三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:12, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
20世纪文学选集对于中国文学史的叙述是不完整的，其中缺失了散文这一体裁。长期起来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）地忽视了这一出色的体裁，但与此同时，由于五四运动树立起了以叙事为主的创作风格，到民国初期发展为重视小说体裁和通俗化创作，散文的兄长--小说，则一直受到重视。而现代文选则告诉读者，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学的支柱。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
其对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年出版的《中国现代文学思想》一书中有所体现。散文体裁的影响，其直接的语言，它与生活的联系(例如，它在与文化大革命的适应中所起的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触到个人读者。这种影响比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。这首诗是一种逃避社会生活，逃避政治问题和时间的文体。<br />
胡适认为，在现代性的进程中，诗歌是最重要的，因为诗歌引起了情感。但它也依赖于图像和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏剧在社会变迁中的作用。但三文却能给事物命名，它反映了生命，宛如万花筒。现代主体性是以三文为工具建构的。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
<br />
散文也比诗歌和小说更好地反映了社会潮流:个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，但在内容和形式上都有一定的局限性。短暂性体现在短文的简短形式上，人们可以在上班的地铁上读到这些短文，而在地铁里，人们可能不会那么自然地欣赏诗歌。<br />
<br />
阅读散文的人比读诗歌的人多，花在阅读小说上的时间也可以追溯到过去。散文本身是一种高度现实性的体裁，如果不只是当今的体裁的话。<br />
<br />
这篇文章告诉我们更多的是关于一个作家和他的时代而不是小说或诗歌，因为在这种体裁中，我们可以不受韵律限制地见到作者本人。我们以真实的眼光看待他所处的当代社会。许多作家在他们生命的后期开始从事散文写作，如鲁迅、巴金和王孟。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:11, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”制作量超过“小说”制作量：从十九世纪七十年代起，中国报纸（申报，时报等等。梁启超认为报纸的作用既自由又权威：一方面，他认为新闻媒体是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他赞成审查制度。）作为20世纪初期的大众传播媒介，报纸以序列化形式仅展示一个或两个虚构的故事，不过它发明了杂文专栏，如“杂感 ”（鲁迅从中发展了他的杂文），和“ 随笔”或“ 随想”（从其中衍生出像巴金的《穗香路》这样的著名收藏）。<br />
<br />
让我们为杂文指定适当的位置<br />
<br />
必须从以上提出的杂文价值与评价之间的对比中得出以下结论：让我们为散文指定适当的位置！<br />
<br />
重新考虑杂文将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
我仅举几例来说明杂文对中国文学的贡献，迄今为止，由于C.T. Hsia, Prçšek and Anderson等人的叙述，小说的光芒盖过了杂文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 04:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
<br />
我们习惯于建立叙事，例如《五四》文学的出现和成功. 但是这种观点忽视了这种作用，例如，在本世纪初的激烈的学术辩论中，元阳护蝶排在不同声音的合唱团中扮演了角色. 当时的五四分之一小组是众人之中的一个声音，只有在公共领域中它的激动和争论才得以成功，因此我们必须使用新的手段来将中文论文分配给自己的位置. 我们从简化的叙述中学到，区分和重建复杂的时间背景是绝对必要的. 对中国文学的理解仅取决于小说和诗歌的发展，而更广泛的理解将改变中国文学的整体面貌. 学术上的努力是在这种类型的方法中使用现代文学理论.<br />
石迪文石迪文[编辑]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 18:13, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
从一开始，人们就认为散文的价值低于诗歌:最古老的参考文献[这比在Morohashi, 5:529a /连续页数5167a，和在中国语言的百科词典，第73卷/ s.p.c. 6137c中提到的更古老。)“散文”这个术语,我发现是罗大经提出(?- 1248年之后):“詩騷妙天下,而散文頗覺瑣碎局促”。诗歌以一种美妙的方式感化人类，散文则是不连贯的杂谈，影响有限。罗大经 14: Baihai: 1)。罗大经提出的另一种质疑则更为正式:与具有高度艺术性和百年历史的诗歌创作传统相比，在他看来，直接的、通常是白话的散文没有什么价值。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:19, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
<br />
在西方，真正的“文章写作的艺术”于16世纪被提出来作为新的重组知识的媒介。这种重新组织来源于哥白尼的观察，这摧毁了中世纪的所有观念。<br />
<br />
在中国，特别是公元四、五世纪对佛教的争论，导致了文学这一传统的起源。然而，中国的“散文(essay)”传统中，对“散”的理解即为驱散、空余、松散、放松、不规则的又自由的风格，在从对话中剥离出来之前不为人知的自由性散文诗或是仍能够在哲学书籍《论语》中见到的谚语。荀子通过他的哲学性论述确立了后来的散文雏形。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
2.散文作为现代媒介<br />
散文是20世纪初现代化社会的一种体裁。它篇幅短，内容贴近现实且没有限制。因此它也能够记录和传播社会最好的形态思想。这是向公众传递时代知识领袖的思想最好的形式，也创造一个公共领域。想象一下没有散文的五四运动吧!想象一下鲁迅的大部分作品都不是散文！<br />
为了应对战争和军阀主义，许多作家不得不定义和重新定义他们的地位和自我理解，并且在后来的现代化社会中，他们通常埋没自己的理想, 从更大的角度看待那些被作者声称是散文产物之一的社会“需求”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
<br />
但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
<br />
我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
<br />
In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
<br />
中国散文是源于本土传统？还是产自西方翻译？这个问题一直是个争议。但无论如何，这两种说法本身就具关联性：自1907年起直至现在，中国散文的体裁形式主要出自西方的散文译本。从这一点来看，中国散文自发展伊始就一直在语言、形式和术语上借鉴西方模式。后来，中国散文的推行者无奈只能仅仅诉诸于中国历史来证明中国本土散文的渊源。五四运动中涌现的传奇作家认为英语散文是中国散文的起源。但之后其中一些作家改变观念，通过证明中国散文自成一家来支撑自己的散文理论。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too.<br />
<br />
这是第一次，不仅可以记录事件，从而扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一位作者传达给另一位作者或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记就此写下了。由于那时缺少珍贵的书写材料，所以用了书卷的边边角角。时至今日，我们在早期欧洲（例如古希腊）和中国的书卷上都能找到这些笔记。这些笔记是个人对于阅读文本的想法、第三方读者对于未知地方和事件的解释、对于不清晰文本段落的解释，对看似书写错误的字符的替代字符，有时只是用来构思文本的标记符号。学校也用这些笔记符号来作为课本来教授学生阅读。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:24, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第一次，不仅可以记录事件，扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一个作者传递给另一个或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记由此形成。由于缺乏珍贵的书写材料，书卷的空白处便用来填笔记。时至今日，我们仍然可以在欧洲早期（如古希腊）以及中国的书卷上找到这些笔记。它们是个人对文本的解读，包括为第三读者对其陌生的地点、事件以及晦涩的文本段落作出解释，订正看似写错的字符，有时是为了划分文本结构，这些笔记也被学校用作教授阅读的课本。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 00:15, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader.<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的起源。在欧洲，它们被称为“旁注”、“边注”，在中国被称为“笔记”（biji筆記，或临时记录）。它们在明朝盛极一时。它们可以是私人的史料、轶事、谈话和沉思。然而，作为一种特有的体裁，人们有散文意识的时候已经是清朝过后了，当时已有大量的散文选集被编撰出来。<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的出处。在欧洲，它们被称为“边注”，“旁注”，在中国被称为“笔记”(biji筆記，或“偶注”)。它们在明朝很兴盛，可以包含私人的历史笔记、轶事、交流和沉思。然而，“自成一种”的散文意识并非起源于中国清代，当时已编撰了大量的散文选集。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
所有这些散文术语，以及蒙田创造出的“随笔”这个词本身，即“尝试，试图”，都反映出散文短暂的、主观的、边缘化的特点。这个词本身就带有轻描淡写的意思，尤其是当你想表达主观的个人想法时又为了不让读者觉得自己很有学究气的时候就更显得具有实质性。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
这篇文章的另一个特点是折衷主义，即在阅读原文时，学者们经常联想与其他文章的引述和联系之处，因而有许多注释没有标注对其他作品的引用。<br />
<br />
In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.<br />
<br />
1977年罗伯特·施莱特发展出边际主义美学说，1996年克劳斯·彼得·菲弗进一步完善该学说，这有助于对这篇文章的特征进行理解。从方法论的角度上来说，边际主义给作者提供了从书本白边回溯到文本本身的宏大视角。施莱特认为，只有政见不同，边际主义才得以存在。边际主义是在阅读过程中留给读者的私人发展空间。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
<br />
Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
<br />
In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
<br />
这是批评和抗议的必要条件。 边缘主义的读者就是带有批判性阅读文章的人。 同样，蒙田（Montaigne）视自己为边缘主义者（Ulke，31-38）。<br />
<br />
现在让我们用边缘主义的概念来研究20世纪中国的论文。 在这里，我以鲁迅的论文为例。 离题是鲁迅在其论文中的修辞手段之一。 题外话与边缘主义和散文主义密切相关：<br />
<br />
鲁迅在他的一些论文中偏离了他的实际主题。 这种现象在他晚期的文章中有所增加。 在威尔珀特之后，离题是有关于怀疑意识和警告信号的一种表达的可能性，即某些事情出错了。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
<br />
1, digression on purpose<br />
<br />
In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
<br />
沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了与他同时代的陈希英的批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这种边缘主义与中国的王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，正如鲁迅在《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在《无常，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)一文中改变了他对同时代的陈西滢的评判。在《24孝图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他反对“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用回忆性和自传体散文来呼吁白话的日常和政治的价值.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
2, not targeted digression<br />
<br />
In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
<br />
3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
<br />
2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这是一篇长篇散文，其中再次历史性地描述了活无常和死有分这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于这个文章出现在脚注里的问卷来说，该问卷的主题与经典探讨的主题严重偏离。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这一长篇散文再次历史性地描述了黑白无常这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于在这篇文章脚注中出现问卷，其主题与经典探讨的主题出现了严重偏离。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
<br />
In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
<br />
5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
<br />
Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
<br />
4、社会批判的一面打击了边缘主义<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他调侃的事情，别人都在解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是一种效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:39, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4、边缘主义本身就带有社会批判的一面<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他取笑的事情，别人都解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:14, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
<br />
Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
<br />
'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为不论是过去还是将来，中国人都想成为永远的奴隶。在自传体散文《无关紧要的回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习。散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
中国教科书中出现了一种看似无法打破“文言散文”的中国传统（于在春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。中国学者对中国传统散文写作的价值和西方对其影响仍有争议。一些人承认西方的影响对当今我们理解中国散文十分重要。（王斌，1992年,范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）。其他学者认为西方的影响被高估了。1996年丹顿表明中国缺少理解西方文学理论的理论背景，建议我们首先按照本国传统理解散文。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:49, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
汉语教科书中出现了一种看似完整的“文言散文”中国传统（于再春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。然而，学者们对中国传统散文的价值以及西方对其影响仍有争议。有些人承认，西方的影响在我们现在所理解的中国散文中十分关键。(王斌,1992年，范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）也有学者认为西方的影响被高估了。在1996年，丹顿指出，中国缺少理解西方文学的理论背景，并建议我们首先基于民族传统来理解散文。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay).<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家转变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证据，来支持散文中本人的理论：比如，鲁迅及其理论——“展开”说与”萌芽“论——视金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，但是他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与“英国小说‘合成’论”之中。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:31, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家改变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找一种中国本土散文传统的证据，来支撑自己的散文理论：比如，在鲁迅及其“展开说”与“萌芽论”中，将金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征视为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，尽管他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与英国小品“合成”论中。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的许多作家都可以被称为传奇，他们演绎着个人的观点对叙述史实有多大的影响。所以作家都认为英文文章是中文文章的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾五四运动时期文学作品里的中国传统文化没有留下，当代文学作品中也没有体现，中国文学主要是用来学习的，人们主要是通过查阅其来证明其中的理论。你可以找到每一时期每个话题的例子，因为文章海纳百川。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的传奇作家可以告诉我们个人观点对史实阐述而产生的影响有多大。这些作家都认为英国散文是中国散文的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾，在五四运动时期文学作品中中国传统文化没有占据一席之地，在当代文学作品中也没有得到传承。中国文学适合用来学习研究，因为人们可以通过查阅来证明文章中的理论。正是因为文章海纳百川，所以你可以找到任何时期任何话题的范例。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
由于痴迷于第一人称的叙述，它混合了日记，情诗，自传和新闻报道这些体裁。我认为 20世纪初对《蝴蝶》这种主观体裁的痴迷为中国现代散文打下了基础。<br />
作品中的戏剧手段在叙述空间中创造出了双重自我- 身为表演者的自我和旁观者眼中的自我。本文强调戏剧性的修辞得益于传统诗歌和戏剧，当20世纪20年代新文学成为主流时传统诗歌和戏剧就退出了舞台。<br />
此外，我将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建立一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设划分之上的早期的民国主体性。 --[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
“黄昏是一天中有预兆的时刻”<br />
“遗忘之夜，却似乎延缓了时间本身，”<br />
“一种中间的状态，在这种状态下，可能是白天的最后一丝阳光”<br />
“仍在上演它的终极奇迹。”<br />
Andreas Huyssen。<br />
《暮光之城》的记忆”<br />
本文通过对中国现代“散文”起源的探究，开辟了20世纪初文学现代性的“朦胧记忆”区，这一“朦胧记忆”区最近一直困扰着中国现代文学领域。从现代汉语的“文章”或“散文”来看，我们如何定义这一体裁?它之所以现代是因为它使用了“白话”吗?它的“现代”是从被称为“散文”开始的吗?五四通用制度是如何建立的?它对文学史的影响是什么?<br />
自20世纪80年代以来，对“五四”以外的中国文学现代性的探索一直在继续。<br />
在对中国文学现代性的学术反思中，最突出的是Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova对晚清中国现代文学起源的强调(“现代中国文学的起源”，Merle Goldman, ed.，《五四时期的现代中国文学》17-36;世纪之交的小说，Perry Link对鸳鸯蝴蝶小说的开创性研究(《鸳鸯蝴蝶:二十世纪初中国的通俗小说》)，刘子彦对“中庸小说”的倡导，以及最近王大卫对19世纪晚期小说的激动人心的、复杂的解读。在一个更大的背景下，大约在同一时期，这一基本上是北美的学术界从“重写文学史”的理论和实践与《二十世纪中国文学》(陈国秋主编，《中国文学》)的修订，相互影响了迅速变化的中国文学批评。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1990年代后期中国文学舞台上的奇观之一是文华鸭和蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。除了无数版的《蝴蝶小说》在商业上迎合后社会主义都市读者的小说外，还有一些富有同情心的学术评估显然挑战了“五四”教规。自1980年代以来，文学批评的格局迅速变化，标志着批判密码从“革命文学”到“文学现代性”的转变。作为文学现代性的核心价值的“纯文学”（“纯文学”）是由新一代的文学评论家和学者开发的，并与后社会主义的环境am昧地联系在一起：一方面，文学批评是在学术上制度化并在某些智力权威上实践；另一方面，“纯文学”怀疑它的现代主义诗学，这暗示着对现状的颠覆力量。<br />
<br />
在最近几年中，出现了大约十二本经过学术界编辑的蝴蝶文学系列，更不用说其他许多用于商业目的的汇编了。仅举几例：范伯群主编，《中国近代通俗作》《平传丛书》（南京：南京市出版社，1994）；范伯群和范子江，主编，《 yang阳呼迪-李白柳排经编小说说文库》（南京：江苏文艺出版社，1996）。魏绍昌主编，Yuan阳护蝶派立派刘小硕。 （天津：春风文艺出版社，1997）；于润奇编，《清末民初小说集》（北京：中国文联出版公司，1997）。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:47, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
二十世纪九十年代末中国文坛的一个奇观是鸳鸯蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。为了迎合后社会主义城市读者的需求，蝴蝶派小说进行了无数次的再版，还有一些富有同情心的读者也对此重新做出评价，这显然是对五四文学主义发起了挑战。20世纪80年代以来，迅速变化的文学批评格局标志着批判原则从 "革命文学 "转变为 "文学现代性 "。"纯文学"作为文学现代性的核心价值，是由新一代文学批评家和学者发展起来的，并与后社会主义条件下的文学批评进行了暧昧的交锋：一方面，文学批评在学术上被制度化，并由某些权威学者实行；另一方面，"纯文学 "对其现代主义诗学持怀疑态度，意味着它具有对现状的颠覆性力量。[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
<br />
如今，五四学派与蝴蝶学派之间的区别不在于“革命与反动”或“进步与后退”，而在于“雅”（优雅的精英主义）与“俗”（具有共同性的平民主义）方面的讨论。 蝴蝶奖学金以“大众”的名义开辟了一个批判空间，但其代价是高昂的：他们的庇护者只能通过遵守五四文学现代性的规范来获得推崇。 如果说文学现代性的基础（进步的历史或民族文学的前提）仍然是不容置疑的，那么蝴蝶学者只能屈居下等。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
<br />
See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
<br />
<br />
例如，早在1960年代初魏绍昌发表了具有开创性的鸳鸯蝴蝶派书目，使这一派别的研究成为可能。最近他对“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”重新进行了评价，将其亲切地称为“美丽的帽子”。然而，这种隐喻却暗示着五四作家对鸳鸯蝴蝶派扣上“帽子”的再一次辩护。因此，魏先生坚称，哪怕是取得成功的最出色的鸳蝶派作品，论才智，论美学，他们都无法与鲁迅，茅盾和其他现代文学巨人媲美。<br />
此外，到目前为止，人们对鸳蝶派的学术兴趣从未超越小说。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:10, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
<br />
Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1997年，《鸳鸯蝴蝶派文章汇编》（Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi）八卷本丛书出版，蝴蝶文章出现了新的主张。这套丛书在书名中暗含着与五四典籍相抗衡的意思，因为它让人想起了1935年出版的著名的《中国现代文学纲要》十卷本，成为五四文学的不朽之作。这本《蝴蝶散文汇编》的主编袁锦在序言中断言，五四时期之前蝴蝶在散文创作上已经取得了很大的成就。<br />
袁进，《鸳鸯湖底派三文大义》。1909-1949 (上海：东方楚岸中新，1997) 3-4。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 12:37, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
<br />
The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre.<br />
<br />
尽管在20世纪20年代以后，他们大多数都逐渐接受了五四作家用的“散文”这个新概念，他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承着传统文学，尤其是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁强调这些文章的主题和美学要素“体现着现代生活，私人感情，和品位，”他认为蝴蝶散文的文学性和文化都有着自己的来源。<br />
《新文学纲要》起着连接伟大作品的作用，它体现了经典是如何通过定义一种文学流派而形成的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
虽然20世纪20年代以后，他们中的大多数人逐渐接受了“五四”作家有关“散文”的新观念，但他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承传统文学，特别是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁着重指出，《蝴蝶随笔》具有“代表日常生活、私人情感和情趣”的主题和审美特征，并认为《蝴蝶随笔》有其独特的文学和文化根源。《新文学纲要》起着连接“卓越”的作用，因为它展示了经典作品是如何通过定义一种流派而形成的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 05:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
<br />
At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
<br />
For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
<br />
“五四文学运动是现代中国散文形式的诞生地”这一观点至今仍在流行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫(1896-1945)和周作人(1885-1968)在为《纲要》分别编撰的“三文”选集的引言中，对现代散文的一种真实定义进行了解释。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系（如胡适与鲁迅的关系，茅盾与郁达夫的关系），则毁于政治争论，或个人的争吵与侮辱。然而，所有这些，都不妨碍他们在一起创造新的文学神话。他们不可能再回到从前，然而这个巨大的工程无疑给他们每个人提供了作为文学大师重塑五四历史的机会。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:06, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系(例如胡适和鲁迅的关系，茅顿和郁达夫的关系)被政治争论、个人争吵和侮辱所破坏。然而，这一切并没有阻止他们共同创造一个新的文学神话。他们不太可能回到过去的日子，但这个宏大的计划无疑让他们每个人都成为了重塑五四历史的文学大师。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
<br />
妥协是必要的，但事实上，《纲要》不能轻易地作为一个整体加以评估，因为所包括的都是杂七杂八的内容，并且在内容和形式上都有冲突。正如大多数编辑所说，使用白话是新文学的标志，但他们在排除蝴蝶派和上海派(haipai)的共识上有一些缺陷，因为这两个派也用白话文写作;相反，这种排除暗含了对城市主义的道德偏见。毫无疑问，人们作出了巨大的集体努力来重建“新”的概念，这个概念本身至少在理论上是权威的，它与进步的历史、人道主义的普遍性和乌托邦的未来相结合。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
<br />
As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
<br />
正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
<br />
正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代论文的特点时，于强调了论文家在个人，自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代散文的特点时，于强调了散文家在个人、自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:00, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
<br />
尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
<br />
郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
郁和周都认为这种现代化的通用体系是理所当然的。 在周看来，散文代表着新文学的最佳成就，这是因为散文能够以多样，复杂的技巧和风格，展现最广泛的生活画面和个人情感和思考，最终与小说和戏剧相比较也是成功的。 周的不满体现在他追溯现代散文的传统至明晚期的“小品文”，此举表明他亲传统的修正，在五四阵营中是有争议的。 但是他将“散文”视为锶中文体系中不可或缺的一部分，他对形式问题的讨论受到这种系统框架的制约。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:11, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
借由现代化通用体系的这一正典，周和郁都从理性角度来描述散文，定义其语言学与文学特征，以确保散文优越于其他所有体裁。这一断言是基于通用体系的合理性，并且从根本上验证了这一体系是个科学的有机整体。在描述散文的代表性特征时，周用了三个词：“叙述”、“论证”和“表达情感”。而郁则使用了“描绘” "叙述"“说明”和"说理"或"论证"四个词来描绘其特征，更加详尽精致，并且每个词后，在括号里都有其相对等的英文词汇解释。但是郁认为细微不同的阐释也是允许的。以此同时，他也认同其他类别的术语表达，如推理，抒情，描写和记叙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:06, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
在这里，周的“美文”（美文）概念引起了我们的特别关注，因为这涉及到他对该类型的历史推测，但仍暗示了其他观点。 周以时间顺序引用了他发表的文章，展示了他如何孜孜不倦地探索三文作为一种新形式，同时阐述了他自己的体裁理论。 正如他所说的那样，他仍然怀着最初的想法，即论文应与《美文》一样完美，他早在1910年代末就倡导了《美文》。 这种历史追溯似乎不仅是从历史的角度回顾他的见解，事实上，其目的是在新的文化形势下重塑他关于“美学论文”的政治。<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能从自己的记忆中汲取更多的话，他在1935年序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对文学理想的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论写作的意义和使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，他的重要性就体现在这篇长文上。正如他之前所说，这本书揭示了他对“文学性”的最初想法，但更具有启示性的是，这本书在1935年被周忽视了，因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对曾为周所压抑的文学的挖掘，打开了一个“朦胧记忆”的区域，为我的目的服务。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能回忆起更多细节的话，他在1935年所作序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对理想化文学概念的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论文章之义以及其使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，其重要性正如标题所言。这本书揭示了他对美文的最初想法，但令人惊喜的是，周的这一观点早在1935年提出过，但却未得到重视。因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对周树人文学经历的挖掘为我展现了一块“暮光记忆”的区域，对本篇文章的论述大有裨益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
<br />
本文从文章、文学、小说三个方面表明了他在文学方面的探索。从某种意义上说，这也是当时名为文学的战场的缩影。在认同文学话语是重塑民族精神最可行的媒介之一这一当代知识分子共识的同时，周试图通过美化“Literature”这一拉丁词文学来构建文学体系。理想的文章体现在艺术和深情的表达上（难怪这篇文章是用古典语言写的）。为了使“文章”这一概念成为一种新的正宗古典主义，他一方面借鉴西方文论对“文章”进行注释，另一方面又对“文章”等其他有影响的词进行了有力的抨击，比如“文学”或“小说”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超“小说”的功利主义倾向，却又欣然接受，甚至将小说与文章相提并论，惟恐文章在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实各自出现过一次，但却被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎和缺乏审美品质，后者则称不上是一个概念。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:54, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超的“小说”功利主义倾向，但又欣然接受，甚至将其等同于文章，惟恐它在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实都出现过一次，但都被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎且缺乏审美品质，后者则算不上是一个概念。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
<br />
Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
<br />
显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
<br />
While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
<br />
寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
梁启超在1899年至1902年发动的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，不同的文学体裁开始出现。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
1899年至1902年，梁启超发起的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，开启出现不同的文学体裁。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
<br />
正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说理论和实践的出现，而非“文”理论和实践的提出。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice.<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。与梁启超的期望相反，“新小说”仍然与其传统相联系；通过新规则的选择与结合，这一传统为“新小说”提供了接受西方文学技法的可能性。也许梁启超和他的追随者创造了这种模棱两可，因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事）。具有讽刺意味的是，尽管它以”复杂,渗透，生动，彻底“宣称人类领域的能力，它也出于自己的喜爱得到了一种全方位的传统文学种类。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。不如梁启超期待的那样，新小说仍与其传统有着千丝万缕的联系；受新规选择、结合，这一传统为新小说吸收西方文学技巧提供了可能。因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事），所以也许是梁启超及其追随者创造了这种模棱两可。讽刺的是，尽管新小说宣称其具有代表人类所涉及领域的能力，该能力具有“复杂性、穿透性、生动性及彻底性”，新小说同样具有几乎所有传统文学有的文学类型，供人们选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 07:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914.<br />
<br />
“新小说”中有种矛盾，即既要带有拯救中国的崇高使命，又要保留迎合大众需求的“闲谈”风格的传统，这两者的矛盾。但“新小说”的风格并没有偏向“闲谈”风格，直到19世纪10年代中期，掀起了一股城市期刊的浪潮，在此期间，“新小说”倾向于有关亲密关系与个人取乐的内容。这是期望与绝望共存的时期，不仅重塑了大众和私人的范围，在社会有关爱情、婚姻和家庭方面的规定上充斥着传统与现代的冲突。对爱情小说也有新的关注，兼带着学习西方以第一人称叙述的期望，例如自传，情书，日记及忏悔。不出意外的，流行杂志与报纸上充斥着悲伤爱情故事，其中包括1914年畅销书作家徐枕雅的《玉梨魂》（1889-1937）。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs.<br />
<br />
这种怪异的组合-悲剧性的浪漫情怀与作者对青年的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-这似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。 吴双热（1884-1934），又是一位以悲剧性的浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“与大话语（“大说”）相对”，新的欲望和社会需求促使他强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:11, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种奇怪的组合-悲剧性的浪漫故事与作者对青春的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。吴双热（1884-1934），一位以悲剧性浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“大篇幅（大说）的对立面”，他受到新欲的望和社会需求的敦促，强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:05, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
<br />
Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超和林纾背后的知识背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人(后来的鲁迅)在日本期间跟随张太炎，受张太炎的影响，周对文学的陈旧看法是建立在这样一种信念之上的，即从更深更广的范围借鉴中国的过去，学习西方，以此防止出现民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超、林纾的学术背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人（后鲁迅）在留日期间追随章太炎，受章太炎的影响，周的古代文学观建立在这样一种信念上：即从中国过去中汲取教训，以更深刻、更广的范围学习西方，可以防止民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:54, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
<br />
周在20世纪10年代中期对以第一人称来叙事进行了细致的尝试。在传统价值观瓦解后，文学成为压抑心理的发泄渠道，同时也重构了情感和观念结构，为重建民族精神铺平了道路。因此，寻求新的文学体裁必然伴随着知识分子的焦虑。当时，周以《星期六》（Libailiu）走红文坛，这是一本旨在娱乐和教育都市读者的周刊，主要以文学愉悦为原则，旨在表达和调节日常生活欲望和消费心理。这种都市印刷文化的繁荣，标志着它与以往致力于爱国主义和民族精神的小说革命发生了逆转；它的表现更多地集中在私人领域和个人身上，揭示了“闲谈”更为鲜明的特征。从这个意义上说，周对第一人称叙事的大量运用是在城市空间中表现一种自主个体的必然，是期刊文化的重要组成部分。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! <br />
<br />
《九花帘幕》出现于1971年由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中，他从一开始就宣布，这本小说月刊旨在推广“百花”小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这个故事被选为典型的蝴蝶作品:内容空洞贫乏，充满无意义的字句。然而，这种偏颇的批评忽略了这篇短篇小说是“百花”小说的先驱，它出现在一本小说杂志上，早在在五四运动之前就主张“百花”。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1971年，《九花帘幕》在由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中出版，他从一开始就宣布这本小说月刊旨在推广白话小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这部小说被评选为一部典型的蝴蝶作品：“（这本小说）内容空洞贫乏，充满了毫无意义的字句。”然而，这种偏颇的批评忽视了这篇短篇小说是白话小说的先驱，在一本小说杂志上出版，在五四运动之前就提倡白话文！--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s.<br />
<br />
杂乱无章的文学体裁，开启了新的可能性，《九花帘》作为一种自我表征，展现了周作人对主观书写的执着，融合了乳品，情书，自白，虚构自传等元素。在这里，我只简单地展示了周小川对自传和情书这两种第一人称叙事的倾注。周小川所采用的这些形式，无论属于当时的“小说”概念，还是更多地属于今天的“三文”标准，都具有一种特定的抒情性和感性魅力，最能吸引周小川。一种类型是指自传的子体裁--风情回忆录--明清情色传统中的一个丰富多彩的分支，以毛翔的《梅影画室回忆录》和蒋坦的《秋灯回忆录》为代表，其中以《梅影画室回忆录》和《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表。周小川在20世纪20年代编辑出版的《回忆录选》中收录了这些文本。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.”<br />
<br />
另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。周因欧文作品《见闻札记》中的创造力和独特性高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏的就是《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过中国文学的窗口了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，一坡一拐而延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡的超然感（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的钢笔变成了反复无常的龙。”--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。其《见闻札记》一书独具创新与独特性，周高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过过去的中国文学窗口来了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，艰难前进而又延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡超然（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的笔变成了反复无常的龙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:40, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''.<br />
<br />
作为1910年代中期描写爱情悲剧的大师，他写了许多短篇故事，并发表在众多期刊和报纸上；其中，那些以第一人称的角度叙述的故事是最好的。他打破了传统爱情故事的语言和抒情方式，他的爱情故事描述了发生在公园、电车、诊所、电影院等新式公共空间的新的城镇主体。更惹人注意的是，他的译作《欧美名家短篇小说丛刊》在1917年出版，揭示了他在嘈杂的环境中处理个人观点的方式。书中所包含的50个故事，其中26个从第一人称的角度进行叙述。有趣的是，在8篇用方言写的文本中，第一人称的代词用的是“wo”，在剩下的18篇用古典语言写的故事中，第一人称的代词多用“yu”“yu”和“wu”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:05, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability.<br />
<br />
白话小说中“我”一词的选择似乎与“五四”文学中确立“ l”作为男性主观性是相同的，但是它们具有不同的现代逻辑。 在鲁迅的作品中也许还有另一种“翻译的现代性”：白话用词"我"在整个选集中不是绝对的。 周对人称代词的使用不仅包括第一人称代词，还包括第二和第三人称代词，表现出文学主体的混乱状态。 他尝试了同时使用白话文和文言文并把它们放在平等的位置，具有多元化的特点。在新的文学情境中，他着迷于多种可能性，更加致力于利用自己的敏感的语言天赋，使用不同的第一人称代词来适应各种表达方式和风格。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:42, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
<br />
范伯群（Fan Boqun）指出，周小川（Zhou Xiaochuan）对现代文学的早期贡献在于心理文学方面，例如日记、书信体小说等，同时，他的翻译对其创作贡献极大。见“朱，卞，易节经得‘文子劳公'：《周守隽（Zhou Shoujuan)评传》”（文学工作者，在写作、编辑、翻译方面取得卓越成就:《周守隽传》），范伯群编:《中国现代通俗作家丛书》第4卷，177页。如果说这本书是周小川迟来的荣誉的话，那么他1917年翻译的欧美著名短篇小说就是他的另一荣耀。上世纪60年代初他给女儿写的信中表明，他1917年的译作受到了鲁迅的赞赏和民国教育局的嘉奖，但是这一点还是他在上世纪50年代初读周作人的回忆录中知晓的。他的文学生涯被批判为反对新文学的反动潮流后，这一信息才透露出来的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
<br />
The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
<br />
莉迪亚·刘指明“I”的第一人称代词“我”的运用作为现代中国文学中翻译现代化的核心问题。随着wo成为通过跨国文化在阻力很大的前进路线上第一人称代词竞赛的唯一胜利者，男性白话主体性得到了确立（见莉迪亚·刘，154-55）。<br />
<br />
《九花帐里》是作者在新婚夜晚对他新娘的情话,他充满激情,带有情绪和自尊地忏悔着他痛苦的过去，同时表达了他对未来夫妻生活的爱和希望。故事以第三人称开始叙述，描述了作者在城市著名的公园之一，也是园的婚礼是如何举行的，在新婚夜里他的朋友聚在新房里如何打趣这对新人的。 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:13, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，其手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，作者为枕边话剧搭建了舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么体面的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不屑。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:52, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
<br />
这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
<br />
当周承诺满足朋友们对他在第一个晚上“在帘子里”对新娘说的话的好奇心时，他故意将场景从背景转移到主要场景——帘子上。他的婚礼虽然是他私生活的一部分，但已经被鲍天晓和陈叠贤曝光，正如周所提到的，他们写了这件事并将其发表在报纸上。周本人也宣布，他自己的枕边谈话将出现在《画报》上。在公众的注视下，周意识到自己的隐私，他把“帘子”作为中心舞台，即房间的最内部空间;这是大胆的并且是非常规的。在中国人所熟悉的婚姻仪式和象征中，涉及婚房的描述是最性感的和最神秘的，激起了他们的情欲和窥探欲。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax.<br />
在“浮华生活的第六记录里”(浮生六记)，一本经典自传体，沈复(1763-)生动地描绘到，“借着婚烛我看见云的身材和以前一般苗条。当她的面纱被揭开后，我们面面相觑了一下。我们喝了交杯酒，然后一道坐下加入婚宴。我暗自抓住了她在桌下小巧的手。很暖和，很柔软，我的心按耐不住地跳动着。”然而，读者可能会觉得失望，因为这里没有出现他们期待的细节描述。而对于大作家而言，描写新婚夜可以符合读者的期待。比如，在李煜的一篇故事里，新娘给新郎更衣后，他看见新娘是“铁女子”后震惊了，她没有性器官”。在“红楼梦”里面，当宝玉讲新娘的面纱揭开时，发现是宝钗而不是黛玉--他被家里的长辈欺骗了，新娘被调换了。因此，传统婚姻体制的阴暗面被揭开了，小说的悲剧性主题也达到了高潮。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
<br />
From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
<br />
叙述者充满爱意的声音开始说道：“我的凤凰夫人：这是我们结婚的第一晚，这是拉开我们家庭生活帷幕的第一天。无论我们的房间是天堂还是地狱，这部戏都是从现在开始的。 无论我们的生活是悲伤还是幸福，我们今天都会开始我们的剧场。”漫长而充满激情的枕边细语是抒情的和装饰性的，带有言语和意象的修辞手段，如诗对联和平行句子，隐喻和重复，融合了古典和西式的词汇和语法。<br />
新郎说：从现在开始，你成为我的家人； 你胡凤君之名将冠以周姓。自你走进周家门起，你自然会为他的家人做些事情。 家务负担沉重地落在我们身上；<br />
我们应该一起承担：一半在我的肩上，另一半在你的肩上。我们应该结成一颗心来克服我们面前的无数困难。 我的老母亲需要你的优质服务，<br />
多户家庭需要您的精心照顾。如果有时候我感到焦虑，您应该了解我，关心我。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
<br />
Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
<br />
夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
<br />
因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和大男子主义色彩的男性话语感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。通过反复的共鸣，叙述者调整他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具有说服力。 细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”或 询问“您明白了吗”等等。 平行句除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬悦耳地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。 --[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。 通过反复的共鸣，叙述者改变了他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具说服力。细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”以及询问“您是否理解”等。 除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.”<br />
<br />
为了给新娘树立榜样，一家画廊引入了一个举世闻名的一些女性以增加说服力，并结合了情欲和伦理学，东西方的文学作为参照。 托尔斯泰夫人帮助她的丈夫投身于写作，并取得巨大成就。 传说中的女主人公梁红玉与她的丈夫一起击败了在十三世纪来中国的外国入侵者。 这是在不同国家实现文化平衡的一种有说服力的方式：后者是本地爱国者的国际化，而前者则是传统的“贤妻良母”的内在化。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
<br />
In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
<br />
<br />
电影呈现和民国主体性<br />
<br />
在这个故事中，幕布在主题和形式目的表现上起到至关重要的作用。窗帘是一种在夫妻生活中最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一种双重幕布的幻觉，从而为表达双重声音起到作用。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又向私人（演员）和公众（观众）交谈。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
电影表现和共和主体性<br />
<br />
在这个故事中，幕布对主题和形式至关重要。幕布是一件在夫妻生活中的最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一件双重幕布的幻觉，从而促进双重声音。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又与私人和共同听众对话。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:43, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
<br />
“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201123_trans&diff=10553520201123 trans2020-11-23T06:19:38Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
History of Chinese Studies <br />
<br />
国际汉学史<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吳漠汀 (Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University 德國維籐大學，中國北京師範大學)<br />
<br />
Abstract: The roots of Chinese Studies lie as early as Chinese people started to reflect on parts of Chinese culture, which was as early as Chinese culture emerged. Especially foreign people defined Chinese culture distinctly in separation of their own culture, like ancient Greek philosophers and early delegations from the Roman Empire.<br />
<br />
摘要：汉学的根源可以追溯到中国人开始对中国文化进行反思的时候，也可以追溯到中国文化出现之初。尤其是一些外国人，如古希腊哲学家和罗马帝国的早期代表团，他们定义下的中国文化是与自己本土文化完全分开的。<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
From the very beginning, Western Scholars of Chinese Studies were closely cooperating with Chinese partners, so that Chinese Studies cannot be limited to Overseas Chinese Studies. Merchants went beyond their trade business and created travel reports and first translations of Chinese literature. Missionaries for the first time studied systematically the Chinese language and culture, translated the Chinese Classics and Four Books into Latin.<br />
起初，研究汉学的西方学者与中国伙伴密切合作，所以汉学研究并不局限于海外汉学研究。商人不仅从事商业贸易，撰写旅行游记，并且首次翻译了中国文学。传教士第一次系统研究了中国语言和文化，将中国文学名著和四书译成拉丁语。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 01:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Their idealized descriptions of China stimulated the Chinoisérie and the positive reception of China among philosophers of the enlightenment, which saw China as a secular empire. Then, the China-image turned to the worse with Western scholars ascribing China a static nature creating the so-called “Great Divergence”.<br />
<br />
他们对中国的理想化描述促进中国风形成以及促使启蒙哲学家对中国的积极接受，这种变化已然是把中国看作一个世俗帝国。随后，中国形象恶化，西方学者把中国定性为静态，形成了所谓的“大分流”。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
This narrative was challenged in the early 1980s with the start of the Opening and Reform Policy. Finally colleges and professorships were established first in the West and then in China. Today, Chinese Studies in the West and in China are enriching each other and are inseparably connected.<br />
<br />
Key Words: Chinese Studies, Sinology, Hanxue, Guoxue, delegations, philosophers, merchants, travel reports, translations, missionaries, enlightenment, Chinoisérie, Great Divergence<br />
上世纪80年代初，随着改革开放政策的开始，这种说法受到了挑战。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的中国学相互 促进，密不可分。<br />
<br />
关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
上世纪80年代初，在改革开放政策实施以后，这种说法遭到了质疑。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的国学研究相互促进，密不可分。<br />
<br />
关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 11:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
<br />
== Headline text ==<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Definition 定義<br />
<br />
Chinese Studies, also called Sinology (in German: Sinologie) or China Studies (in German: Chinawissenschaften, Chinakunde), is the academic discipline to study China in its geography, history, society, culture(s), language(s), literature(s) etc. It is mainly divided into the study of ancient and premodern China and of modern and contemporary China.<br />
定义 Definition<br />
汉语研究是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等的学术科目，人们也称之为汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或者叫中国研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde）。汉语研究主要分为中国古代和近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:40, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
定义 <br />
<br />
汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），这是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等各方面的学科，并主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 03:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
定义<br />
汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言、文学等方面的学科，主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:13, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the Chinese language, internationally the term “Hanxue” is used (first used in Japan as kangaku漢學/汉学, parallely to the term “Hanyu” 漢語/汉语 for Chinese). The term is not meant discriminative against non-Han minorities, since we have terms like “Hanyu” or “Germanic Studies” (the Germans were an ethnic tribe of many in todays Deutschland). In Chinese, domestically more often the terms “guoxue” 國學/国学 or “Zhongguo xue” 中國學 etc. are used.<br />
在中文里，“汉学”这一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为汉学，类似中文被称为“汉语”)。这一词语并不意味着排斥非汉人的少数群体，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼研究” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个的民族)的词语。中国国内“国学”或“中国学”等词更为广泛使用。By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:44, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在中文里，“汉学”一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为漢學/汉学，类似于中文中“漢語/汉语”一词)。这一词语并不意味着歧视非汉人的少数民族，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼学” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个民族)的词语。在汉语中，“國學/国学”或“中國學”等词更为广泛使用。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:37, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
There is a trend to divide Chinese Studies in sub disciplines dealing with traditional or modern China, while the term “Sinology” is more often applied to the traditional part. In quantity, scholars dealing with traditional China become less and those dealing with modern or contemporary China more. Of course, there are other exotic terms for phenomena related to China or Chinese people, like the term “Tang People Street” 唐人街 for Chinatowns.<br />
<br />
汉语研究之下往往又分为不同的子学科，致力于研究中国古代或现代，然而“汉学”这一术语更适用于中国古代。在数量上，研究中国古代的学者越来越少，而研究中国现代或当代的学者则越来越多。当然，还存在一些与中国或中国人相关现象的外来词，如“Tang People Street” 即唐人街。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Some Chinese scholars interpret the term “Hanxue” as reserved for the study of China by foreigners, implying often that the real “guoxue” could only be conducted by Chinese scholars, arguing you need to grow up in China in order to understand it. However, confronted with the case of overseas Chinese scholars or Western scholars growing up and working in China, the limitation of this racist distinction becomes obvious. <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Although in history we have rare examples of foreigners who were able to study China without Chinese partners (starting with language teachers) or without visiting the country, and Chinese Studies today often is conducted by mixed teams of domestic and foreign scholars.<br />
<br />
尽管有史以来，外国人不结交中国伙伴或是没去过中国就研究中国的例子鲜少出现。如今研究中国的通常都是都是由国内外学者组成的团队。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然在历史上，我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴的情况下(这些伙伴开始会是语言教师)或在没有访问过中国的情况下研究中国的例子，但如今的中国研究往往是由国内外学者以混合团队的形式进行的。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管在历史上我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（从语言老师开始）或没有访问中国的情况下来中国学习的例子，但是今天的中国研究通常由国内外学者组成的混合团队进行。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
纵观历史，很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（最初为语言老师）或没有拜访过中国的情况下研究中国，而且直至今日，中国研究也通常是在国内外学者协同合作的情况下进行的。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:13, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
The discipline itself, as established at universities, had a natural focus on language and literature (philology). Today, we have a broad range of sub disciplines like Chinese literature [epigraphy], language, culture, philosophy/ethics/aesthetics, history, political science, sociology, economy) 正如大学所建立的那样，该学科本身就专注于语言与文学（语言学）。如今，我们拥有广泛的子学科，例如中国文学[金石学]，语言，文化，哲学/伦理/美学，历史，政治学，社会学，经济）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:30, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
Emergence<br />
<br />
Although the first university professorships as we know them today were established only in the 1814, we find the origins of Chinese Studies in early descriptions of China by philosophers. That the empires knew early about each other is proven by delegations, exchanged even two thousand years ago between the Roman Empire and China.<br />
<br />
诞生<br />
<br />
虽然，如我们今天所知，第一个大学汉语教授职位于1814年才确立，关于汉学的起源我们能追溯到哲学家对中国早期的描述。各国代表团证实了各帝国之间相互知悉的事实，而早在两千年前，罗马帝国和中国之间就有了往来。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
兴起<br />
尽管我们今天所知的第一个大学教授职位是在1814年才设立的，但我们在哲学家对中国的早期描述中发现了国学的起源。早在两千年前，罗马帝国和中国之间就交换了代表团，这证明了两个帝国很早就已经相互了解。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 13:55, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Later we have records and first translations of travelling merchants (Marco Polo lived in the 13th century and travelled on land and by ship) and then by missionaries (starting with the 16th century). Later we have western philosophers (like Leibniz) and reports in journals dedicated to China.<br />
<br />
后来，我们有了旅行商人的记录和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上旅行），然后有了传教士（从16世纪开始）。 再后来，我们有了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），他们在研究中国的期刊上进行报道。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
后来出现了行商的记载和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上航行），之后出现了传教士（始于16世纪）。 再后来，出现了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），以及他们探索中国所留下来的有关记载。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The first scholarly view on China had the Christian missionaries, who studied Chinese language and culture in China. Therefore, the first translations of Chinese classics were done into Latin. The term “sinology” since the Latin term “sina” for China seems to point to the Qin Dynastie since 221 BCE. The main purpose of the missionaries was to baptize and therefore they also translated the bible into Chinese and reported on the so far mostly unknown China to Europe, reports which met a huge interest and demand in Europe.<br />
<br />
基督教传教士是最早对中国持有学术观点的人，他们在中国研究中国语言和文化。因此，第一批翻译的中国经典著作也就翻译成了拉丁文。汉学“sinology”一词源于拉丁语中的“sina”，意指公元前221年以来的秦朝。传教士的主要目的是施洗，因此他们也将《圣经》翻译成中文，并向欧洲报道迄今几乎不为人知的中国，这些报道满足了欧洲巨大的兴趣和需求。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Resources 资源<br />
<br />
There are a lot of national histories of Chinese Studies so far, but no detailed international or global history (see references).<br />
The Overseas Chinese Studies Center 海外漢學研究中心 at Peking Foreign Language University 北京外語大學 under the leadership of Zhang Xiping張西平 has been renamed in the 2010s to Research Center for the Study of Chinese Culture 中國文化研究中心#. Here a list of works on the History of Sinology:<br />
<br />
资源<br />
迄今为止，有许多关于汉学研究的民族历史，但是并没有十分详细的国际或者全球历史（参阅参考资料）<br />
在张西平的领导下，北京外国语大学的海外汉学研究，在2010年改名为中国文化研究中心。以下是汉学研究作品的列表。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:13, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
First contacts: Trade (without written documents)<br />
<br />
Genetic evidence shows that there were trade relations from Mesopotamia to Europe and China as early as 11000 BCE (cows, horses) and 10000 BCE (crops). <br />
China very early became an export region, as we can trace the genes of animals back to China 10000 BCE (pigs), 8000 BCE (chicken), and of silk cloth 5000 BCE.<br />
<br />
首次接触：贸易（无书面文件）<br />
<br />
基因证据表明：早在公元前11000年了，美索不达米亚就和欧洲，中国有牛羊贸易关系，公元前10000年，就有了农作物贸易关系。追溯到公元前1000年的猪和公元前8000年的鸡身上的动物基因，以及公元前5000年的丝绸来看，中国很早就是个出口地区了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
首次接触：贸易(无书面文件)<br />
<br />
遗传证据表明，早在公元前11000年(出现如像牛、马等动物贸易)和公元前10000年(出现农作物的贸易)，美索不达米亚与欧洲和中国之间就有贸易关系。追溯到公元前10000年猪的贸易和公元前8000年鸡的贸易，从中发现的动物基因，以及公元前5000年所交易的丝绸来看，中国很早就成为了一个出口地区。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
遗传学证据显示，早在公元前11000年美索不达米亚就和欧洲就有了牛马贸易往来；早在公元前10000年，美索不达米亚就和中国有了作物贸易往来。追溯动物基因，我们可以发现，公元前10000年中国就有了猪，公元前8000年就有了鸡，公元前5000年就有了丝绸。因此，中国很早就成为了商品出口地区。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Emergence of Chinese Studies: Philosophers<br />
Aristotle (384-322 BC) writes in the 4th century BC: “Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery.”[ Aristoteles: Politeia, Book VII, Part VII, translated by Benjamin Jowett, http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm, last visited Dec 5, 2010. In German: „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“, from: Aristoteles: Werke. Griechisch und Deutsch, vol. 6, ed. by Franz Susemihl, Aalen 1978 (Reprint of the edition Leipzig 1879), p. 409.]<br />
<br />
汉学的起源：哲学家<br />
亚里士多德（公元前384年-公元前322年）在公元前4世纪写道：“那些生活在欧洲寒冷地区的人们精气神十足但是缺乏智慧和技巧；所以虽然他们保留了相对的自由，却没有政治组织，也没有管理的能力。然而，亚洲人聪明且富有创造力，但是他们缺乏勇气，所以他们总是顺从和被奴役。” [ 亚里士多德：《政治学》，第七卷，第七部分，由本杰明·乔伊特翻译，http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm，最近一次访问日期2010年12月5日。德语原文为： „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“，引自：《亚里士多德作品集-希腊人和德国人》，第六卷，由Franz Susemihl, Aalen在1978年出版（1879年在莱比锡再版），第409页。]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The Emergence of Religious Missions with the Study of China as a by-product<br />
Between 1593-1607 the Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a press and produced 4 books on Christian belief. <br />
<br />
1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书<br />
<br />
In 1583 the influential Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrived in Canton and spent the rest of his life in China.<br />
<br />
1583利玛窦（耶稣会会士）抵达广州，在中国度过余生。<br />
<br />
宗教传教的出现<br />
1593年至1607年间，西班牙多米尼加使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:30, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书，这是汉学研究中有关宗教使命起源部分的衍生产物。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，并在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:10, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
Interest by European emperors in the beginning of the 18th century<br />
In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.<br />
<br />
在法国，对中国和中国语言的研究始于路易十四的赞助。在1711，他任命了一位年轻的中国人Arcadio Huang对皇家藏书的中文文本进行目录整理。黄的助手艾蒂安Fourmont，在1742年发表了一本中国语法书。<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China.<br />
<br />
1732年，来自那不勒斯的传布信仰圣部的传教牧师Matteo Ripa马国贤（1692–1746），在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆的第一个汉学学校：“中国学院”，它后来成为了今天的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711和1723之间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画家和雕刻师。马国贤从中国回到那不勒斯时，带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们都是汉语教师，组建了学院，在教皇克莱门特十二世的批准下向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。<br />
<br />
1732年，那不勒斯王国“圣公会”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即后来的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。当他回国的时候，他带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们在教皇克莱门特的授意下，组建学院、担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1732年，那不勒斯王国“传信部”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯建立了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即当今的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。在回到那不勒斯时，他带了四个年轻的中国基督徒。在教皇克莱门特十二世的授意下，他们组建学院，担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Chinoiserie<br />
<br />
Chinese objects of art as symbols of Chinese cultural tradition early spread to Europe, reaching the peak in the 18th century during the period of Chinoisérie“中国风”. Fascinated Collectors saved several artefacts for following generations. Their selection criteria allow to approach the guiding aesthetic principles behind their fascination. European imitations of these artefacts show in their similarities and differences to the originals and to the own cultural traditions the principles they followed to catch the reason for the experienced exoticism during the consumption of the cultural goods. Imitated imitated Chinese-style architecture, imitated Chinese paintings and imitated characters in paintings, tattoos and design, reveal what principles Westerners believed to guide Chinese traditional art.<br />
<br />
中国风<br />
<br />
作为中国传统文化象征的中国艺术品很早就传播到了欧洲，在“中国风”时期达到了顶峰。对此十分着迷的收藏家们为后人保存了几件文物。他们的选择标准很接近他们所欣赏的指导性美学原则。欧洲的工艺模仿品表明了他们自己的文化传统和原型的相似性和差异性，他们遵循的原则符合在文化商品的消费过程中对异国情调的体验。在绘画、纹身和设计方面的模仿特点、模仿中国风格的建筑和仿作的中国画，揭示了西方人眼里的中国传统艺术的指导原则。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:05, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Europe: Enlightened Philosophers end of the 18th century 欧洲：第18世紀末的启蒙哲学家<br />
<br />
During the enlightenment process in Europe, philosophers in their search for a vision of a world without religious control, discovered China and wanted to understand it as a secular ideal alternative to Europe. (Leibniz: Novissima Sinica, The Orphan of Zhao, Voltaire: wrote play “L'orphelin de la Chine” portrait of Confucius, Giambattista Vico.<br />
<br />
启蒙哲学家在欧洲汉学（莱布尼茨：《中国近事》，伏尔泰：《赵氏孤儿》、孔子肖像，维柯。<br />
<br />
1789-… Enlightened philosophers: Saw China as an enlightened kingdom with ethics instead of church and religion<br />
<br />
1789…启蒙哲学家：看到中国作为一个有伦理的开明王国而不是教会和宗教伦理<br />
<br />
一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
<br />
在欧洲的启蒙运动中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，了解到了中国这一国度，并将其视为欧洲脱离世俗的替代品。（莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
在欧洲启蒙运动的进程中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，发现了中国，并希望可以将其视为欧洲脱离世俗理想替代品。莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》 --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 09:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Europe: Professorships<br />
<br />
The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 6, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
由于和圣经的紧密联系，亚述学、埃及学的研究在正规的中国研究前发展充分；印度学研究代表了语言学发展的突破口。可能是因为中国文本和它们没有联系，所以直到1860左右，它才成为除了法国外的欧洲大学最后的研究对象。<br />
<br />
由于和圣经联系紧密，亚述学、埃及学的研究在中国正式研究前就已经展开了；印度学研究是语言学发展的突破口。或许是因为中国文本缺乏这些联系，所以直到1860年左右，它才成为除法国外欧洲大学最后的研究对象。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
欧洲：教授职位展正式<br />
由于和圣经的联系，亚述学和埃及学的研究的发展都在中国研究之前；印度学的研究在语言学中是一个极大突破。中国的文本可能是因为缺少这些联系因而在欧洲大学界最后才开始研究直到大约1860年，法国除外（Zurndorfer,中国圣经学 1999版，p.6, 引自维基百科《汉学》，2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
The first college to study Chinese was established in Italy. At the Academy in St. Petersburg in Russia, on March 23, 1741, the lecturer 伊拉利昂·罗索欣 started to teach Chinese Studies. He was also part of a mission sent to emperor Kangxi in Qing Dynasty.de<br />
<br />
首个教授汉语的大学创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，在俄罗斯圣彼得堡的学院，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣开始教授汉语学。他还参加了清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
首个学习汉语的学院创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始讲授汉学。该讲师也曾参加清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:54, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
首个研究汉语的学院是在意大利建立。 1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始教授汉语。他还参加了清朝对康熙进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
On December 11, 1814, the first Professorship of Chinese and Manchu was established at the Collège de France, the sinologist 雷慕莎 Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian Sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. <br />
<br />
1814年，研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立。雷慕莎自学了中文，占据了这一位置，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。<br />
1814年，首个研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立，雷慕莎自学中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:47, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1814年12月11日，首个汉学和满学的讲座席位在法兰西公学院成立，汉学家雷慕莎（Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusa）自学了中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一任汉学教授。而之后俄罗斯的汉学奠基人尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
雷慕莎的同仁分别有英国的Samuel Kidd（1797–1843）和德国的Wilhelm Schott（1807–1889），虽然在这两个国家头等重要的世俗汉学家是理雅各和加贝伦茨。理雅各等学者常常依靠华人学者如王韬等人的作品。<br />
<br />
<br />
阿贝尔·雷穆萨在英国和德国的同行分别是塞缪尔·基德（Samuel Kidd，1797-1843）和威廉·肖特（Wilhelm Schott，1807-1889），不过这两个国家最早出现的重要世俗汉学家是詹姆斯·莱格和汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德加布伦茨。像莱格这样的学者经常依赖于像王韬这样的华裔学者的作品。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:08, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
儒莲担任法兰西学院的汉学教授超过40年，他与雷慕莎一起开始他的研究，并在1833年继承了雷慕莎的工作。他以不仅针对古典文学、而且涉猎白话文学作品的翻译工作和和对满族的了解而闻名。沙畹在德理文于1893去世后继承了他的位置，沙畹在历史和语言领域上兴趣广泛。<br />
<br />
斯塔尼斯拉斯·朱利安（Stanislas Julien）在法兰西学院（Collègede France）担任中文主席40多年，从雷穆萨（Rémusat）开始学习，并于1833年继任。他不仅学习古典文学作品，还学习白话文学作品，并了解满族。 爱德华·沙畹在1893年侯爵·圣赫尔·圣丹尼斯（Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys）去世后继任。沙畹追求历史和语言的广泛利益（Zurndorfer，中国参考书目1999年第8-14页，引自Wikipedia“ Sinology”， 2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Rulian served as a professor of Sinology at the French Academy for more than 40 years. He started his research with Remusa and inherited Remusa's work in 1833. He is famous for his translation work not only for classical literature, but also for vernacular literary works and his understanding of Manchu. Chavannes inherited his position after De Liwen died in 1893. Chavannes has a wide range of interests in history and language. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
After the Opium war 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and the SOAS/London University were established.<br />
<br />
In 1875, Leiden University in the Netherlands started and in 1890 the sinologist 考狄 founded the first academic journal by Westerners on China, the Toung Pao 通报.<br />
<br />
1840年鸦片战争后，剑桥大学东方研究院和英国伦敦大学亚非学院成立。<br />
<br />
1875年，荷兰莱顿大学成立，1890年，汉学家考狄创办了第一个由西方人撰写的关于中国的学术期刊—《通报》。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In 1912, Richard Wilhelm, who had lived in China for about 30 years, taught at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Frankfurt and established a Chinese Seminar “中国学社” and together with Beiping’s Furen University the journal华裔学志.<br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, in Sweden the University of Gotheburg established East Asian Language and Culture Seminar, starting with Sven Hedin, who explored Western China, followed by the the Chinese linguist 高本汉.<br />
<br />
1912年，在中国居住了约30年的理查德·威廉在法拉克福的弗里德里希·威廉大学任教，并成立了中文研讨会“中国学社”，并与北平辅仁大学合作创办了《华裔学志》杂志。<br />
<br />
19世纪末，瑞典哥德堡大学创办了东亚语言文化研讨会，首创人是研究中国西部的斯文·赫丁，其后是中国语言学家高本汉。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the “commentarial tradition” through critical annotated translation. <br />
<br />
那时，中国在西方的形象是靠耶稣会学者传达的，本质上是儒家社会的形象，这样的形象主导了西方思想。在欧洲，有一些人学习说汉语，但大部分人学习写文言文，这些学者学习时会使用批判性的注释，属于“注释传统”的行列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:05, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在那个时候，中国在西方的形象在本质上是以耶稣会学者传达的儒家社会为主。在欧洲，有些人学学习说中文，大多数人则学写书面文言文。这些学者们通过批判的注释性翻译处在了所谓的“注释传统”。<br />
<br />
当时，耶稣会学者所传达的中国本质上是儒家社会的形象主导了当时的西方思想。在欧洲，虽然有些人学说汉语，但大多数人学的是文言文。这些学者是在所谓的“评论传统”通过批评注释翻译。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:32, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
耶稣会士学者传达的中国作为一个儒家社会的形象在当时根深于西方人的思想中。 尽管有些欧洲人学会了说中文，但大多数人仍然学习古典汉语。 这些学者通过批判性的注释翻译而处于所谓的“注释传统”中。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:31, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as “philological hairsplitting” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 14-15, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018). Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities.<br />
<br />
这种强调翻译经典文本的做法阻碍了社会科学方法论的使用或与其他传统的文本的比较。有学者称这类汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者逐渐多于传教士，并在西方大学为20世纪的汉学慢慢积累了实质性存在。<br />
这种对翻译经典文本的强调抑制了社会科学方法论的使用或对其他传统文本的比较。有学者将这种类型的汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者的人数逐渐超过传教士，并且到了20世纪，汉学在西方大学中也慢慢占据了一席之地。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 13:43, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Sinology in Germany <br />
<br />
Today, in Germany there are about 30 universities and universities of applied sciences with Chinese Studies.<br />
<br />
Since the beginning of the 19th century, people started to conduct research on China. In 1829–1831, the orientalist Carl Friedrich Neumann bought 12,000 Chinese books in Canton, which he shipped to Munich and which became the foundation of the East Asian Collection of the Bavarian State Library as well as the Berlin State Library. Since 1833 Wilhelm Schott taught Chinese and Chinese philosophy in Berlin.<br />
<br />
德国的汉学<br />
如今，在德国有大约30所大学以及应用科学大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑。这一举措使慕尼黑成为了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的基础。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
德国汉学<br />
<br />
今天，大约有30所德国大学和应用科技大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑，这一举措奠定了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的根基。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:58, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Pioneering research on China were the geological-geographical research trips by Ferdinand von Richthofen since the early 1860s. In 1887 the first Chinese language classes and sinological classes started at the Seminar for Oriental languages in Berlin. In 1889, the first German Chair of Sinology was established at the University of Leipzig, the first full professor was Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1912 the 2nd chair was established in Berlin with J. J. M. de Groot and in 1914 at the Colonial Institute in Hamburg with Otto Franke.<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学讲座在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二任主席由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学委员会在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二个委员会由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立了另一委员会。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 12:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
During colonial times, in which the German Empire held the Chinese colony “Kiautschou”, the interest in Chinese culture grew. The exile of many Chinese scientists in the period of National Socialism harmed the German Sinology sustainably. Since the opening up of the People's Republic of China in the 1980s, Sinology in Germany is no longer among the orchid subjects and new students of Sinology have good job prospects.<br />
<br />
在殖民时期，德意志占领了中国山东青岛的胶州市，人们对中国文化的兴趣与日俱增。纳粹时期许多中国科学家背井离乡，对德国汉学造成了持续的伤害。自20世纪80年代改革开放以来，德国汉学不再被束之高阁，汉学新生就业前景良好。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The change of attitude among early China experts with the example of the early reception of the Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
The Red Chamber Dreams shortly after publication in 1791 spread fast among the foreigners’ community including Robert Morrison (who incorporated parts of it into his language teaching material and dictionary already by 1813-1815).<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:59, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期中国作家的态度转变，以《红楼梦》的早期收录为例<br />
<br />
1791年，《红楼梦》出版后不久，便在包括罗伯特·莫里森(Robert Morrison)在内的国外社会迅速流传。（莫里森早在1813年-1815年就将《红楼梦》的部分内容引入其语言教材和词典中）--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The novel also was made known in partial translation both in English and French (by John Francis Davis) in Europe in 1819. However, for a few decades, the Western reviews of the book were mostly negative, revealing an ethnocentric approach, valuing Chinese literature below Western literature.<br />
<br />
1819年，《红楼梦》的英语和法语（John Francis Davis译）的部分翻译使这部小说知名于欧洲。然而，几十年之后，西方对于该书的评论大多是消极的，他们认为该书呈现出种族中心主义的观点，并且认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年,该小说还被译成英语和法语（约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯译（John Francis Davis）），因而在欧洲为人所知。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，这揭示了西方的一种民族中心主义，即认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:43, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年，这部小说在欧洲被部分翻译成英语和法语（作者:约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，即揭示了一种民族中心主义的态度，对中国文学的评价低于西方文学。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
It took almost a century to get to know each other better, to change attitudes from ethnocentric to dialectical, to stop exploiting the novel and to come to the insight that Chinese literature with Dream as one of its masterpieces was not only comparable to other world literatures but also could bring value to Western readers (Mayers 1867).<br />
<br />
经过几乎一个世纪，双方增进了解，并从“民族中心主义”的优越感向辩证思想转变，停止利用小说互相攻击，开始深入了解中国文学，不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，而且，更重要的是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。<br />
<br />
几乎一个世纪,增进了彼此的了解。双方从“民族中心主义”转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解中国文学。不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，更是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:17, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
近一个世纪，彼此之间增进了了解，从”民族中心主义“的优越感转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解以《红楼梦》为代表的中国文学，它不仅可以与世界其他文学相媲美，而且还可以为西方读者传递价值观。（梅辉立（Mayers） 1867年）。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Main Controversies<br />
<br />
a) The Great Divergence<br />
<br />
One of the main controversies in Chinese Studies is that for a long time China appeared economically backward (compared to Western European nations). Sociologists (Marx), philosophers (Hegel), economists (Kenneth Pomeranz: The Great Divergence) and sinologists tried to explain this with the static nature of Chinese economy due to Confucianism.<br />
<br />
主要的争议<br />
<br />
a)大分流<br />
<br />
汉学研究的主要争议之一是，长期以来，中国出现了经济落后的情况(与西欧国家相比)。许多社会学家(如马克思)，哲学家(如黑格尔)，经济学家(如肯尼斯·彭慕兰：《大分流》)和汉学家试图用儒家思想所导致的中国经济的静态性来解释这一现象。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:06, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Scholars have questioned this: Angus Maddison suggested that China was leading (rotating ranks with India) by GDP from 0 to 1550 so that the current development was a return to old status. Philipp C.C. Huang concentrated on rural developments and argued that only the concentration of production capibilities during the socialist reforms laid the foundation for today’s Chinese economical miracle. Today, sinologists argue that Confucianism is one of the main reasons for the economical miracle.<br />
<br />
学者们对此提出了质疑:安格斯•麦迪森认为，中国从0年到1550年在GDP上处于领先地位(与印度轮流排名)，所以目前的发展是一种对旧地位的回归。菲利普•黄关注农村的发展，认为只有在社会主义改革中集中生产能力，才能为今天中国经济奇迹奠定基础。今天，汉学家认为儒家思想是经济奇迹的主要原因之一。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 11:11, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
学者们提出质疑，奥格斯·麦迪逊认为中国从开始到1550年GDP一直处于领先地位（与印度不分伯仲），所以中国当今的发展只是回到了旧时的社会地位。菲利普 C.C.黄专注于乡村发展，并且认为社会主义改革时期将重心放在生产力上为如今中国经济奇奠定了基础。如今，汉学家认为儒家思想是中国经济奇迹的主要原因之一。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:06, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
“The Chinese have as a general characteristic, a remarkable skill in imitation, which is exercised not merely in daily life, but also in art. They have not yet succeeded in representing the beautiful, as beautiful; for in their painting, perspective and shadow are wanting.<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征，即拥有卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅体现在日常生活中，也体现在艺术中。但由于其绘画领域中缺乏透视法和阴影画法，他们无法充分展现事物的美。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
“总之，这个民族有种罕见的模仿能力，这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也用运到了艺术创作当中。美作为美的事物去展示对于这个民族来说并不成功，因为在绘画中缺少了透视和阴影。<br />
<br />
中国人有一个总体特征，那就是其超凡脱俗的模仿能力。这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也运用到了艺术创作当中。由于其绘画中缺乏透视法和阴影，他们无法淋漓尽致地表现出事物的美。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:28, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征：一种卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅运用于日常生活中，也运用在艺术领域。但由于画中缺乏透视和阴影，中国人没能成功展现出美感”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
And although a Chinese painter copies European pictures (as the Chinese do everything else) correctly; although he observes accurately how many scales a carp has; how many indentations there are in the leaves of a tree; what is the form of various trees, and how the branches bend; - the Exalted, the Ideal and Beautiful is not the domain of his art and skill. The Chinese are, on the other hand, too proud to learn anything from Europeans, although they must often recognize their superiority.” <br />
Hegel, The Philosophy of History (transl. J. Sibree, p. 155)<br />
<br />
即使中国画家原封不动地模仿欧洲的绘画，如若他知道鲤鱼有多少鳞片……，崇高的、理想的、美的事物也不是他的艺术土壤和擅长之处。” 黑格爾，《历史哲学讲演录》<br />
<br />
尽管一个中国画家原封不动地地复制了欧洲的图画（就像中国人所做的所有事那样）；尽管他能准确地观察到鲤鱼有多少鳞片；一棵树的叶子上有多少凹痕；各种树木的形状是什么，树枝是如何弯曲的；崇高、理想和美丽不是他的艺术领域和技巧。另一方面，中国人过于骄傲，不愿向欧洲人学习任何东西，虽然他们必须经常认识到自己的优越性。J、 西布里，第155页）--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
b) Chinese and Western scholarship<br />
<br />
Traditional Chinese education (focusing on self development and social harmony) differed much from Western scholarship (search for truth and universal human values). Chinese scholars of guoxue often do not recognize Western scholars of Hanxue as their colleagues. Today there are trends to return to Confucian education, teaching and scholarship in China, taking the Hanlin academy as example (see: Hong Kong College).<br />
<br />
b）中西学问<br />
<br />
中西方在传统教育方面又很大不同，前者侧重于追求自我发展和社会和谐，后者寻求真理和普世价值观。中国国学学者通常不把西方汉学学者当作同行。如今，儒家教育以及儒学研究在中国如火如荼，以翰林书院为例（见：香港大学）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:19, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
b）中西学术<br />
中国传统教育（注重自我发展和社会和谐）与西方学术（追求真理和普遍的人类价值）有很大不同。中国国学学者往往不承认西方汉学学者是他们的同僚。今天，中国教育有向儒学教育回归的趋势，以翰林院为例（参见：香港大学）。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:17, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Also Traditional Chinese Medicine has continued to be an alternative to Western medicine, although the general grouping into Yin and Yang has been proven to be arbitrary since objects/organs etc. historically were assigned to Yang for a time and to Yin at other times. However, acupuncture has been recognized by Western medicine to be effective. Western reproach towards Chinese scholarship is that it is not conducted in a free environment.<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体/有机体等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是随意的。然而，针灸仍被西医认为是有效的。西方对中国学术的指责是，它不是在一个自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 16:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体、器官等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，但是一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是任意的。然而，针灸已为西医所认可，但西方学者指责中国学术不是在自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
From Ethnocentrism and Exoticism to Universalism and Dialogue: <br />
the General Trend of Chinese Studies in the West - <br />
A Case Study of the Early Western Reception of Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
从种族中心主义和异国主义到普遍主义和对话：<br />
西方中国学之总趋势——以《红楼梦》早期西方接受为例<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler <br />
(Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University, Nanking Normal University)<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
“Chinese Studies” (Sinology, Chinakunde, Études Chinoises etc.) in general from its origins until today sees a main trend from ethnocentrism and exoticism to universalism and dialogue. Undergoing historical periods of Chinoisérie and then China-bashing during imperialist and colonialist times, Chinese Studies at universities and in associations like the German China Association has established a more objective view on China. <br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，汉学在大学和学术协会（如德中协会）里建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。<br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，大学和学术协会（如德中协会）的汉学建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ethnocentrism is still existing among Western sinologists today and has to be fought. Still, the contemporary trends globalization, digitalization and travel freedom offer the current generation of sinologists so far unseen possibilities of international cooperation, promising extremely fruitful especially between distant cultures like China and the West. <br />
但是，在当代西方汉学家中间仍然还存在民族中心主义，我们需要为此而抗争。随着全球化、数字化和“出境自由行”这三种当代趋向的出现，新一代汉学家获得了前所未见的国际合作可能，特别像是中西间如此大跨度的文化差异，其国际合作的前景和潜力更是无可估量。<br />
今天，很多西方汉学家依然带着民族优越论的思想，我们需要为此抗争。伴随着全球化、数字化和旅行自由的潮流，当代汉学家在国际合作上有了前所未有的可能；尤其是像中西这样如此大跨度的两个文化间，其合作的前景更是无可估量。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:57, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Key words<br />
Ethnocentrism, Exoticism, Universalism, Chinese Studies, German China Association, universal values, Gregor Paul, cooperation, China and the West<br />
<br />
關鍵詞<br />
宗族中心主義、異國主義、普遍主義、漢學/中國學、德中協會、普遍價值觀、Gregor Paul、合作、中國與西方<br />
<br />
When we define an academic category like “Chinese Studies”, we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads. Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently.<br />
<br />
当然，世界之间的联系远不如今天，诸如马和轮船之类的速度较慢的运输工具，以及诸如道路之类的基础设施往往损坏或危险丛丛。 因此，乍看之下，这些地区已经独立地发展了自己的文化、文明甚至第一语言。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 08:29, 21 November 20<br />
当然，世界各地区间的联系远不如今天；当时使用的都是马和船只这样的慢速运输工具，道路之类的基础设施也往往很原始，危险重重。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 06:02, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
<br />
最古老的文字文明的证据，可以追溯到公元前3500年，我们在美索不达米亚平原这片新月状的沃土中找到了苏美尔人的粘土板。随后在古埃及，然后是印度，最后在中国也相继找到了证据。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today. We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
<br />
但是我们对历史探索得越多,就有更多有趣的证据证明，比起看似可能存在的思维迁移，这些看似独立的发展中地区存在更多的贸易关系和思想交流，从历史角度来看，我们并不只是重新发现和重新评估丝绸之路,也是作为一个政治议程来重建它。我们今天在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据，在美洲和欧洲也发现了中国文明的早期证据。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:23, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
但我们越是探索历史，就会发现更有吸引力的证据：这些看似独立发展的地区之间的贸易关系和思想交流比思维流动性更频繁：丝绸之路不仅在历史上被重新发现和重新评价，而且在今天也被重建为政治议程。如今，我们在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据而在美洲和欧洲也同样发现了中国文明。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
文化科学比其他科学更受其研究对象的影响，因为我们是它的一部分，不能离开它去研究它。文化科学的历史从最初的跨文化冲突发展到今天的生活，文化相互交融，人们作为不同文化的一部分互相理解。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其研究对象影响更大，因为我们是文化科学的一部分，不能独立于它去研究它。文化科学的历史已经从最初的跨文化交流发展到今天，文化相互交融，同时人们作为不同文化的一部分相互理解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
<br />
When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
然而，文化之间的差异总是存在的，那是因为整合和分离的趋势是同时发生的。<br />
当不同文化存在时，对它们的比较便存在意义。文化有两个方面。一旦开始比较，便会发现其价值。在没有专家或该学科之前就已经发生了文化交流。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 03:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
<br />
因此，文化间的第一次比较是具有种族中心主义的：你拿你遇到的任何事物与你自己的文化相比较，认为它们是“其他的”、“外国的”、“外来的”。这时常伴随着情绪：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
因此，文化之间的第一次比较是具有民族中心主义的：拿你所接触的任何事物与自己的文化相比较，发现他们是“其他的”、“外国的、“异样的” 这常常混杂着个人情感的：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 03:27, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
<br />
你可以将文明分为所谓的“高级文明”和“低级文明”，“发达”和“欠发达”文化。 在文化相对主义时代，这是一种以民族为中心的方法。 但在后增长经济时代的今天，在经历了殖民化和传教化的不幸经历之后，我们知道，每种文化都是平等的，不能认为哪种文化的价值更高或更低。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
<br />
第一次通过西方人对中国文化进行深入的分析，不是来自商人，而是来自耶稣会士。对中国的了解是多么的少，这可以从以下事实中看出，只有耶稣会士设法澄清了鞑靼和基泰/卡泰两个帝国的神话，事实上，这两个帝国都是同一个（中国）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:36, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣会士。西方人对中国知之甚少可以从以下事实看出：只有耶稣会士成功地澄清了鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话事实上是相同的（都属于中国）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
西方第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的是耶稣会士，而不是商人。从只有耶稣会士才设法阐明鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话实质上是相同的（讲的都是中国）这一事实来看，西方对中方的了解少之甚少。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:04, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China. <br />
<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] <br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs.<br />
<br />
翻译偏离了原文，我们才猛然发现其中基督教三位一体的上帝。<br />
这是一种种族中心主义传统的出发点，它把原文本身解读成他者并异化，而不是把他者当作一种价值观来尊重，甚至允许它挑战自己的信仰。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword.<br />
<br />
连德国基督教传教士兼汉学家理查德·威廉在其影响深远的1919年道教翻译中也使用了基督教语言(信仰、天堂之门、来生等)，并在1925年在《论语》中使用上帝这一翻译。<br />
<br />
传教士们在几个大陆上给看似“落后”的土著人施洗，有时还用武力威胁。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals.<br />
<br />
许多被认为不太“发达”的文化受到了严重影响，甚至遭到破坏并且已经消亡。早些时候，“十字军”甚至发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
<br />
另一方面， 异域化表现在第一批来到欧洲的中国人所能接受的方式：这些文化在茶话会上被传下来，受到瞩目。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多在人们看来不是太“发达”的文化遭受了重创，甚至已经毁灭或消亡。早些时候，“十字军”发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
<br />
另一方面，对其他文化的异域化影响则表现在第一批来欧洲的中国人被欧洲人接纳：他们在参加各种茶话会，被人们奇怪地看待。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
<br />
很快中国货就成了异国情调的象征。中国的瓷器和小装饰品，甚至中国风格的建筑都在欧洲得以重现。狂热崇拜中国形象，被称为中国热，当然不是对真正中国形象的狂热。这股中国热甚至影响到伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家，他们把中国比作一个理想国家，这个国家没有宗教信仰和道德价值观，由一位睿智的皇帝所代表。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China.<br />
<br />
在欧洲，第一批中国文化的专家的任务是不再从民族中心主义的角度而是从科学的角度来解释中国文化，许多大学给予很多人教授头衔，他们早期的翻译显示出外来的附加痕迹，“中国风”也被中国的“山寨风”所抵制。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics. As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.黑格尔以他的文化排名延续了对中国的种族中心主义观点。尽管孔子已经发展出一套可与康德的“绝对命令”相媲美的“黄金法则”原则，但黑格尔却宣称中国哲学不如欧洲哲学，甚至认为看到了从孔子到佛陀、查拉图斯特拉、古希腊和罗马哲学的一步一步的地理发展，引领了欧洲哲学。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 04:44, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 04:44, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
<br />
Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.).<br />
<br />
错误百出的评论可以证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书没什么文采，但由于它是用北京方言所写，因而可以作为语言学习材料；居茨拉夫：主角宝玉真是一个爱耍小性子的女人；贾尔斯：“红楼梦没有在书中出现过”等等。）。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:17, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
书评中许多人对其的误解能证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书文笔拙劣，但由于是用北京话写的，因此可以用作语言学习材料;居茨拉夫：主角宝玉是一个被宠坏的女子; 贾尔斯：“红楼梦”一词没有在书中出现等）。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels.<br />
<br />
在这里，外来翻译只是用于取笑中国。巴罗介绍了一段《红楼梦》节选，描述的是宝玉和熙凤的外貌，弗兰西斯•戴维斯将其翻译成英文，但显然是为了“嘲笑花花公子和美丽佳人”。弗兰西斯•戴维斯从这本小说中挑选了两首诗歌翻译，但其目的不是为了诗歌本身，而是为了证明他自己的观点（这也是少数人的观点）—中国诗人明白，小说中的诗歌是具有一定“描写”功能的。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 06:47, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
此处，外来翻译只是用于取笑中国。巴罗挑选了《红楼梦》一节来描述宝玉和熙凤的外貌。弗兰西斯•戴维斯将其译成英文，但显然是为了“嘲笑花花公子和美丽佳人”。弗兰西斯•戴维斯从这本小说中挑选了两首诗歌翻译，但其目的不是为了诗歌本身，而是为了证明他自己的观点（这也是少数人的观点）—中国诗人明白，小说中的诗歌是具有一定“描写”功能的。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 11:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “[dreams of the red chamber.” He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在其《汉语词典》中将小说的标题称为“红楼梦”，从而创造了该小说的标题的西译本。[他解释道小说红楼梦中一个叫妙玉的女子就像是一块令人钦佩的宝石，参见罗伯特·莫里森：《汉语词典》三部分，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷p930，此处p614，左栏。印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提及该小说，并将其标题翻译成迄今已知的西方语言。如果没有更早的发现，则意味着莫里森所创作的译本一直持续到今天几乎不变。]他选择了复数形式，这是相当合理的，因为小说中有许多梦想。似乎在27年后，复数的“梦”变成了单数的“梦”，听起来更笼统，因此也是一种合理的翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森(1782-1834)在他的《汉语词典》中将《红楼梦》称作“dreams of the red chamber”，从而创造了小说的英文译名。他把《红楼梦》这本小说中一个女性人物的名字“妙玉”中的“妙”字解释为“令人艳羡的宝石”，（参见罗伯特·莫里森《汉语词典》，澳门：东印度公司出版社，1815年，第一卷第936页，此处第614页左栏)。在印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提到并将标题翻译成西方语言。如果找不到比这还早的标题翻译，便意味着莫里森创造的翻译一直持续到今天都几乎发生没有改变。“梦”这个词的译文他选择了复数“dreams”，这是相当合理的，因为在小说中有许多梦。27年后，复数的“梦”（dreams)变成了单数的“梦”(dream)，这听起来有点笼统，但也是一个合理的翻译。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
''Red Chamber Dreams'' is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “''Dreams of the Red Chamber''” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
<br />
在所有的翻译中，“ Red Chamber Dreams”是到目前为止英语以及所有西方语言中最常见的翻译。<br />
<br />
1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，出于语言学目的对中国的看法：包含对中国年历，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的描写，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门语言：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐“红楼梦”和小说《好秋传》作为初学者的读物。 到1719年，红楼梦的翻译大部分是英语，部分是葡萄牙语。在1761年以后全部用英语翻译。两种都是口语化的。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:14, 23 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
在所有的翻译中，“ Red Chamber Dreams”是到目前为止英语以及所有西方语言中最常见的翻译。<br />
<br />
1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，出于语言学目的对中国的看法：包含对中国年历，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的描写，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门语言：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐“红楼梦”和小说《好秋传》作为初级读物。 到1719年，《好秋传》的翻译大部分是英语，部分是葡萄牙语。在1761年以后全部用英语翻译。两种都是口语化的。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 06:19, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Morrison claims that ''Dream'' was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the ''Dreams'' is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
<br />
马礼逊称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，因为书的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色有时候还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，也是作者有意而为之，这也是此作品之后享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年仍有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 11:07, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
马礼逊认为，《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，《红楼梦》的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色在某些场合甚至还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，这是作者有意而为之，也是《红楼梦》在后来享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年时，仍有人认为《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
马礼逊声称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。这一说法是不正确的，因为作者曹雪芹来自南方，小说中很多人说话都有南京方言的色彩。事实上，方言和社会用语的巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。马礼逊的错误持续了很长一段时间。[即使是在1995年，还有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。]--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this （导言）reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p.76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited Dec 5, 2010.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel.<br />
巴罗在1819年6月4日的季刊上提到了书名“[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams”。他在一篇评论中这样写道：这是我自己的发现。迄今还未被20世纪的红学讨论过，第一次发表是在2010年10月。1816年和1817年在中国内陆的旅行，以及往返于那个国家的航行;书中记载了阿默斯特公爵驻北京法院的大使馆最有趣的事情，以及对它访问过的国家的观察(克拉克阿裨尔，伦敦，1818，于威廉吉福德，季刊21:41,1819年1月，67-91页，79-80页）这个版本仅仅在1819年6月4日发行了13000本。作者在此遵循了对作者巴罗任务的论证，原因如下:“绅士杂志(1844年3月)，246-47。这篇文章的作者提到了#415和#438(包括一个特定的引用)，它们都是关于同一个主题的，都是巴罗写的。还有关于杀婴的讨论(第76页)和巴罗在第422页审查过的莱佛士对爪哇的描述。在他的Q[uarterly] R[eview]文章中，巴罗的标志性做法是引用他自己的作品，参见“季刊评论档案”，http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html，上一次访问是在2010年12月5日。克拉克·阿贝尔(Clarke Abel)关于中国之旅的报道。[克拉克·阿贝尔，1816年和1817年在中国内陆的旅行，以及往返于那个国家的航行;书中记载了阿默斯特公爵驻北京法院的大使馆最有趣的事情，以及对它访问过的国家的观察，1818年伦敦F.L.S.。他以一段关于中国人千篇一律的外表和一成不变的本质的论述打断了他的评论，这与当时赫尔德和黑格尔对中国的抨击一致。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 06:12, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream.<br />
对于当代欧洲人来说，中国人看起来异常的统一，衣着和外表都相当简单。他们不会屈从于暴政时尚;他们的文化是静止的。为了娱乐“大不列颠的美女和美人”，巴罗（Barrow）引用了杰·戴维斯《翻译的梦》第三章，对服装的描述和对两个人物的剖析，来衬托这个总体印象。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 06:26, 22 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
对于当代欧洲人，中国人的穿着和外表显得异常统一和朴素。 他们不会服从时尚的暴政。 他们的文化是静态的。 为了娱乐“大不列颠的风向标”，巴罗引用了戴维斯红楼梦翻译第3章中对两个人物王熙凤和贾宝玉的服装和人物性格剖析的描述。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:25, 23 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
<br />
Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
<br />
实际上，这些描述中给出的图形比较对于当时的欧洲人来说简直是陌生的，因为它们显然不符合欧洲人自己的美感。<br />
<br />
甚至在1842年，居茨拉夫（Gützlaff）都批评说：“作者[对]他无法对这个主题伸张正义，提出了许多抗议，这确实是书中唯一的道理。以说北方法院方言的方式，可以有利地细读这部作品” [“在中国小说中，这部作品绝对享有很高的地位。在多次抗议他无法公正对待这个主题之后，这确实是本书中唯一的真相[...]总结了这个乏味的故事，在表达我们对表演文学价值的看法后，我们可以说这种风格没有任何艺术意义，实际上是北部省份上层阶级的口头语言。有些词的用法与普通著作有所不同，而另一些词的用法则是为了表达省级声音。但是，读完一卷书后，这种感觉很容易理解，并且无论谁希望熟悉北部法院方言的表达方式，都可以从中受益。同上，p。273.]<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:49, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below – <br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
<br />
“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed.<br />
<br />
1867年，即第一本中文印刷版出版78年之后，我们对梅辉立的两页进行了首次真正的深入回顾：[梅辉立，在：中日释疑（1867年12月31日）,第167-168页，此处第167页。梅辉立曾担任英国使馆驻北京的中国秘书。他还给出了一些翻译中的简要摘录：<br />
“天堂之上或地狱之下都很广阔–<br />
叹息可能会限制过去的激情<br />
为无知的青年，不幸的少女而悲伤！<br />
最后，爱的誓言不是经常被兑现的！ ”（第167页）[…]<br />
不会脾气柔和，方式温和，<br />
公平为最公平…（第168页）<br />
[…]<br />
不常发光<br />
你的渴望也是徒劳的！ ” (第168页)].]<br />
<br />
“如果公然宣称对任一中国作品充满热情的感觉是合法的，那么要对红楼梦或‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’的无端指摘表示真正的钦佩是不可能的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 13:37, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors.<br />
<br />
<br />
在英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的作品经常被与前几代令人厌倦和不熟练的作品相比较，就如同红楼梦被与其他中国作家的小说作品作比较一样。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:22, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的作品经常被拿来和早期一些令人厌倦和不熟练的作品作比较，同样地，人们也经常把《红楼梦》与其他中国作家的小说作比较。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:12, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance;<br />
<br />
复杂多变的人物性格，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，凡此种种，作者都以具有技巧和才识的笔触描绘出来，这事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者那具有技巧和才识的笔触下的这些，性格复杂多变的人物，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end.<br />
<br />
同时，就像在自然界的生存戏剧中一样，风暴和阳光的反射紧密地交织在一起，喜剧的轻快线与故事的黑暗主线并排而行，故事的黑暗主线以悲伤的预兆开始，以泪洗面而终。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
同时，正如自然存在本身就具有戏剧性，风暴与阳光之间的映射紧密纠缠，明亮的喜剧线与黑暗的故事主线并肩而行，展开故事，它以悲伤的预兆开头，并最终导向令人垂泪的结局。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture.<br />
<br />
梅尔读了近80十年的书评，在阅读过程中，他能读懂越来越多的章节，所以他民族中心主义的观点逐渐变化，最后变成了科学的观点。他1867年的书评呈现了辩证的态度，他不仅承认中国小说是世界小说的一部分，甚至对中国小说有没有可能超越其本国文化取得的成就持开放态度。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s.<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多多元化的中文研究，在美国大学中扮演海外华人的角色，尤其是在1930年代通过Franz Kuhn进行的进一步翻译以及 1950年代的德国中国协会.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 03:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多样化中国研究中心，随着海外华人在美国大学中角色的改变，随着二十世纪三十年代翻译进一步发展，这其中弗兰克·库恩（Frank kuhn)是典型代表，随着二十世纪五十年代德国中国协会的建立，这个过程完满结束了。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:29, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China.<br />
<br />
<br />
在其60年的历史中，德国中国协会(旁边是正在发展的大学中国研究中心，旁边是其他与中国打交道的组织，如友好协会和孔子学院)以多样性和宽容帮助克服偏见和文化相对主义。这尤其具有挑战性，因为两国文化和语言相当遥远，而德国媒体和互联网社区往往会抨击中国。<br />
在过去的20年里,德国的中国协会在优秀的主席格雷戈尔保罗领导下建立,通过敏锐和精确的分析中国和西方的一个共同的逻辑，还有普世价值,包括值得一起追求的人权，他建立起了这个协会的声誉。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before. Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like “A Harvard Literary History of Modern China”.<br />
<br />
他的演讲娱乐性强，内容翔实，善用修辞，引经据典。例如：分歧往往源于意见不和，而非事情性质不一致，这从他和妻子的争吵中可以看出，他们都记得前一天发生的事情。保罗是一名逻辑学家和普遍主义者，他提升了德国的国际声誉，德国被誉为“诗人和思想家的国度”。<br />
<br />
如今，中国与西方学者在国际会议、研究项目或诸如“现代中国的哈佛文学史”之类的国际图书项目上的合作，是对中国更加公正的体现，也是合作达到高潮的体现。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume ''History of Chinese Literature'' published in Bonn.<br />
<br />
总体上来说，欧洲人（以及后期的美国人）对中国的研究做出了贡献。研究很大程度上受到了理想主义者（耶稣会士和德国启蒙哲学家）以及抨击中国者（黑格尔和德国教皇）的影响。中国的文学作品花费了100年的时间才能得到像欧洲文学那样的认可。但是如今，中国文学和文化已经受到诺贝尔奖的认可，孔子学院也成功地在国外传播弘扬中国文化。<br />
<br />
然而，我们不能高估欧洲对中国文学的贡献。仍有很多民族中心主义的例子，甚至有宗教鼓励性的读物混入中国文学当中。其中一个例子便是在波恩出版的《十卷中国文学史》。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 03:12, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god. This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让我们再次想起耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，尽管中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、演讲和绘画，把美好愿景和文献记载世代相传，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 13:20, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让人联想到耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，而这个时候中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、言论和绘画，从美好愿景到记载事件、家族等，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:25, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”. <br />
<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
这位德国汉学家重新翻译了源于孔子的《论语》，并用“神”一词翻译了50多个“天堂”或“恶魔/鬼魂”的事件。研究孔子的专家也引用了一些孔子说的鬼神等超自然的问题。而且他还分析到孔子充其量对鬼神的信仰可能不太感兴趣，甚至持有消极的态度，但他对其为人民带来的社会稳定与和平持积极态度。这提醒了我们一个事实，那就是我们要确保民族中心主义在今天仍然存在，并且科学是一个需要警惕和谨慎的领域。公开反对它需要勇气。<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
“We were wrong” – Coming to terms <br />
with failed master narratives of Chinese Studies<br />
“我们错了”——汉学应对主流叙事传统<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吴漠汀<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
We, the international scholars of Chinese Studies, apologize for two main misinterpretations of China. 1. The master narrative of Jesuits and others who tried to proof the Western Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. As a tool, they used a distortion of the Chinese texts by manipulated translation. <br />
<br />
我们是中国研究的国际学者，对中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人在古代中国文本中试图证明西方基督教之神的主要叙事。作为一种工具，他们通过操纵翻译来歪曲中文文本。<br />
<br />
“我们错了”--关于汉学错误的主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为研究汉学的国际学者，为我们对于中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人的主流叙事中试图证明在古代中国作品中存在西方基督教之神。他们通过操纵翻译这一工具来歪曲中国作品。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:07, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“我们错了”---学会接受错误的汉学主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为汉学的海外学者，要向中国道歉，因为我们在两个方面误读了中国。1. 耶稣会教士和其他人的主流叙事试图证明古代中国作品存在西方的基督教上帝。他们通过操纵翻译来歪解中国作品。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:36, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
2. The master narrative of the stagnation of China, sometimes claimed to be inherent and systemic, often reasoned with Confucianism. This narrative was a dogma for 150 years between 1830 and 1980. The disruptive economic development since 1978 has proven this narrative wrong, Confucianism is seen as one reason for the economic miracle. <br />
<br />
2.关于中国停滞的主要叙述，有时被称为固有的和系统性的，常常用儒家思想来推理。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙事错误，儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的一个原因。<br />
<br />
常以儒家思想为依据的中国停滞论有时被认为是固有的和系统性的。在1830-1980年这150年间，这种说法如同教条主义一般。直到1978年中国经济飞速发展才证明这种说话是错误的，儒家思想也被视为中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:49, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.中国停滞的主要叙述有时是内在的、系统的，通常由儒家思想所论证。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙述是错误的，而儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:31, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于中国发展停滞不前的大体说法有时被认为是固定的、系统的，且往往以儒家思想为依据。在1830-1980年这150年里，这种说法像教条一样根植人心。直到1978年以后，中国经济的腾飞推翻了这一说法，儒家思想也被视为是中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 03:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
3. The master narrative of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution as a successful Communist reform. During the 1970s, Western sinologists abandoned basic principles of neutrality, distance and fact-seeking and, based on propaganda, enthusiastically celebrated the Cultural Revolution and became dedicated followers of Mao Zedong, holding up the Little Red Book.<br />
<br />
无产阶级文化大革命的主要叙事是成功的共产主义改革。在20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立，距离和事实寻求的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热烈地庆祝文化大革命，成为毛泽东的忠实粉丝，举起小红皮书。相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
主述将无产阶级文化大革命（文革）描述为共产党的一场成功改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热衷于庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:40, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在主流叙事中，无产阶级文化大革命是一场成功的共产主义改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传层面上热烈庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:16, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
The readiness to believe in the Chinese propaganda was partly motivated by the wish to idealize China into a model which could show the way for a reform of Western societies.<br />
<br />
相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
人们愿意信任中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，而这种典范可以为西方社会改革指明道路。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:49, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们愿意相信中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，可以为西方社会改革指明道路。 --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
Apology, errors, mistakes, manipulation, ethnocentrism, eurocentrism, master narratives, Chinese Studies, sinology, coming to terms with the past<br />
<br />
道歉，错误，错误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
道歉，错误，失误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 11:55, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
1. God in China上帝在中国<br />
<br />
Human beings develop ancestor worship, complemented by natural religions. The natural religions established a layer of shamans who interpreted the will of the natural gods. <br />
<br />
人类发展祖先崇拜，辅以自然宗教。自然宗教建立了一套解释自然神灵意志的法则。<br />
<br />
人类开创了祖先崇拜的先例，并辅以自然宗教。自然宗教组建了一支能解释自然神灵意志的萨满法师队伍。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:38, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
In India, the layer of priests of the Vedan religion alienated from the people, because the religious texts of Vedan religion brought a conservating effect to language, texts were canonized and finally not understood by ordinary people any more. <br />
<br />
在印度，Vedan宗教的神职人员与人民疏远，因为Vedan宗教的宗教文本对语言产生了保护作用，文本被册封，最后不再为普通人所理解。<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Finally, only the Vedan priests could understand the Vedan texts any more. This was the start of the so-called “anti-religious” start of Buddishm.<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是Buddishm所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。<br />
<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:50, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源由此开始。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Due to the alienation of people and the religious texts and its priests, Buddha was able to establish Buddhism. He claimed that every individual was able to find his or her own way to self-perception and spiritual liberation (nirvana). <br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀能够建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式（涅槃）。<br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本和祭司关系并不紧密，佛陀才能建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
由于人们和宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。他宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们和宗教由于文本及其祭司发生了异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。佛陀宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:59, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Although Buddha did not abandon priests, he established the new tradition that masters would have their disciples and these could overcome their masters. Also, Buddha destroyed the perfectionism of the almighty god by claiming that the life of imperfect men simply was much more interesting. <br />
<br />
虽然佛陀没有放弃传教者，但他建立了新的传统，即主人会有他们的门徒，这些人可以推翻他们的主人。此外，佛陀通过声称不完美男人的生活更加有趣，摧毁了全能神的完美主义。<br />
<br />
尽管佛陀没有放弃祭司，但他创建了新传统，即大师们会收弟子，弟子们也能青出于蓝而胜于蓝。并且，佛陀摧毁了全能神的完美主义，他认为不完美的人的人生会更精彩。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:53, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
佛陀尽管没有放弃祭司，但是他创立了新传统，即大师们会收弟子，弟子们可以青出于蓝而胜于蓝。此外，佛陀认为不完美之人的人生更加精彩，从而摧毁了全能神的完美主义。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 10:26, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
In China, ancestor worship has kept its dominant role until today. Although there was the age of shamans, since several millenia every family clan had its own tradition of ancestor worship. It was believed that the ancestors in heaven watched over and influenced the lives of their descendants on earth. <br />
<br />
在中国，从古至今祖先崇拜一直保持其主导地位。虽然有巫师的时代，但自几千年以来，每个家族宗族都有自己的祖先崇拜传统。人们相信，天上的祖先会注视着并影响他们的后代在地球上的生活。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 01:19, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在中国，从古至今祖先崇拜一直占据其主导地位。尽管有过巫师的时代，但是几千年来，每个家族都有其自己的祖先崇拜传统。人们相信，天上的祖先会注视并影响着其后代在地球上的生活。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:58, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
So the most important unit were family clans. Even rulers used fire cracks and characters inscribed in turtle shells or cattle bones to communicate with the ancestors and to predict the future. <br />
<br />
所以最重要的单位是家族。甚至统治者也使用火龟纹和龟壳或牛骨上的字符来与祖先交流并预测未来。<br />
<br />
因此最核心的单位是家族。统治者甚至通过把火裂纹和符号刻在龟壳和牛骨上的方式和祖先进行交流和预测未来。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，最重要的单位是宗族。甚至统治者也会将火裂纹和字符刻在龟壳或牛骨上，用来与祖先交流并预测未来。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 01:25, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
However, when the dynasty changed and a new ethnic group took over, they could not claim the ancestors to be their relatives any more, so the shangdi concept was replaced by heaven (tian) and related understandings like “son of heaven”, “mandate of heaven” etc., supllying them with legitimization of power. <br />
<br />
然而，当王朝改变并且一个新的族群接管时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚，所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和相关的理解所取代，如“天堂之子”，“任务”天国等等，用权力合法化来贬低他们。<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，当王朝更迭并且被一个新的族群所接替时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚。所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和其相关的理解所取代，如“天之子”“天之使命”等等，用权力合法化来作为补充。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Although there were mythical divine creatures, the understanding of gods was not developed as distinct and authoritative as in Europe and Egypt. Egypt and Europe both further developed from multi theism to mono theism.<br />
<br />
虽然有神话般的神圣生物，但对神的理解并没有像欧洲和埃及那样发展出独特和权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论到单一神论进一步发展。<br />
<br />
虽然有神话中的神创物，但对神的理解并没有像在欧洲和埃及那样发展得独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论进一步发展到一神论。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
尽管存在神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:46, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然有神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Theism established a layer of priests, occupying the role of mediators between god and men. Since every uncontrolled authority abuses its power, these mediators gained earthly wealth and took advantage of their control over people by abuse of their work force and even sexual abuse. <br />
<br />
有神论建立了一套祭祀法则，成为了神与人之间调解者的角色。由于每个不受控制的权威都滥用权力，这些调解人获得了人间的财富，并利用他们对工作人员的滥用甚至性虐待来控制他们。<br />
有神论确立了一些神职人员来充当上帝和人民之间的调停者。无限制的权力会导致权力的滥用，因此这些调停者不仅获得了大量的财富，还利用自己对人民的控制来压榨他们的劳动力甚至是通过性虐待来达到此目的。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 14:08, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
In Europe, the power was divided among the rulers and the church, represented by the pope, the cardinals, the bishops and the priests. <br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力在统治者和教会之间分配，由教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父代表。<br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力被统治者和以教皇、红衣主教、主教和神父为代表的教会所控制，并且被分享、分配。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，由统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会掌控分配权力。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会分配权力。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 04:02, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Since religion in general claims to be valid for all of menkind, when new territories were discovered in East Asia and Africa, the missionaries tried to enlarge the territorium under their control by forcing locals to accept European religions and societal development models like modernization and economical development. <br />
因为宗教通常声称对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士试图通过迫使当地人接受欧洲宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大他们控制下的领土。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:34, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于宗教一般主张对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士会试图通过强迫当地人接受欧洲的宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大自己控制的领土。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
After the first missionaries arrived in China and saw that the exchange was positive for both sides, they also developed a motivation to keep the missionaries alive, which was a second motivation for them. <br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国，并看到双方的交流是积极的之后，他们也发展了一种让传教士活动的动力，这是他们的第二个动机。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国后，并看到这种交流对双方来说都是积极的，他们也就产生了另一个动力，让传教士们积极活动。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:11, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
第一批传教士抵达中国并看到双方的交流是积极的以后,他们又发展了一种保持传教士活力的动力，这是他们发展的第二个。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Since the Christian religion is a religion revealed in divine texts, the missionaries had a strong motivation to find evidence in the classical Chinese texts that the Christian god also existed there. So among the first texts, they selected, translated and sorted were the canonized texts. A good example is the Daodejing which they translated in a distorted way, allowing them to proof the existence of the Christian god in China.<br />
<br />
由于基督教是一种神圣文本中所揭示的宗教，传教士有强烈的动机在中国古典文本中找到证据，证明基督教的神也存在于那里。 因此，在第一批文本中，他们选择、翻译和排序的是册封文本。一个很好的例子就是《道德经》，他们以扭曲的方式翻译，使他们能够证明中国基督教神的存在。<br />
<br />
由于基督教起源于神圣文本，所以传教士很想在中国古典作品中找到基督教的神亦存在的证据。因此，他们最初选择、翻译、排序的文章都是经典作品。这些传教士歪曲事实，翻译《道德经》是一个很好的证明。其目的是证明中国存在基督教的神。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:35, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
This was the first major mistake, the attitude of Europeans to find evidence of their European god in Chinese roots. This attidtude lead to translation practises abandoning the basic rules of the profession: <br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人在中国人根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种原因导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：<br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人想寻找证据，证明自己的欧洲神明存在于中国人根源之中的这种态度。这种态度导致其在翻译实践中放弃专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:14, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人试图在中国根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种态度导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:24, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Terms, concepts and ideas sounding familiar were forcibly changed into the original European meaning. However, the published translations did only show a slight influence of this practise, the main translations, e.g. of the Daodejing first were not published, but discussed internally. <br />
<br />
熟悉的术语、概念和想法被强制改变，具有原欧洲意义。但是，已发表的翻译并没有受太大影响，主要翻译，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
为人熟知的术语、概念和想法被强制改变为原欧洲意义。然而，已发表的翻译作品仅受到了轻微影响。但主要的翻译作品，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为人所熟知的术语、概念和思想，被迫改为原来的欧洲含义。然而，已发表的翻译只是受到了这种做法的轻微影响，但主要的翻译作品，如《道德经》最初没有出版，而是进行内部讨论。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
The outcome of the discussion was that the deviations in the translations would have to go too far and ultimately that there was no proof of the Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. <br />
<br />
讨论的结果是，翻译中的偏差必须走得太远，最终在中国古代文本中没有基督教之神的证据。<br />
<br />
讨论的结果是，译本的偏差会太大，最终导致在古代中国文本中没有基督教上帝存在的证据。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
讨论的结果是译本可能会偏差过大，最终导致在中国古籍中没有基督教存在的依据了。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:50, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, since then several missionaries, priests (Richard Wilhelm) and sinologists (Wolfgang Kubin) still tend to translate the Chinese concept of “heaven” into concepts familiar to Europeans like “god”. <br />
<br />
<br />
尽管如此，从那时起，几位传教士，牧师（理查德威廉）和汉学家（顾彬）仍然倾向于将中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，如“上帝”。<br />
<br />
尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师（如理查德·威廉）和汉学家（如沃尔夫冈·库宾）还是倾向于把中国的“天”译作欧洲人所熟悉的概念，如“上帝”--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
<br />
尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师(理查德·威廉)和汉学家(沃尔夫冈·库宾)仍然倾向于把中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，比如“上帝”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:26, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
This is wrong and we as sinologists, apologize to the Chinese citizens for this eurocentric approach. We hope to overcome this historical mistake by cooperation with our Chinese colleagues.<br />
<br />
这是错误的，我们作为汉学家，为这种以欧洲为中心的方法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作修正这一历史错误。<br />
<br />
这是错误的，并且作为汉学家，我们为这种以欧洲为中心的做法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作来纠正这一历史错误。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
这种以欧洲为中心的做法是不对的。作为汉学家，我们为此向中国公民道歉，希望能够和中国汉学家合作来纠正这个历史错误。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
All institutionalization develops inertia, the Chinese society was very instituionalized, therefore the Christianization in general failed. However, he secondary aims of the missions, to bring the European understanding of societal development (development of economy, health, education bringing about progress and modernization) were a success.<br />
<br />
所有制度化都发展了惯性，中国社会非常机构化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。 然而，他的使命的次要目标，使欧洲对社会发展的理解（经济、健康、教育带来进步和现代化）的成功是成功的。<br />
<br />
<br />
一切制度化都滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标是，使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），这个目标成功了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:42, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
<br />
一切制度化滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标：使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），成功了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
The missionaries translated European books of knowledge into Chinese and therefore practically performed a knowledge transfer. Also the learning of foreign languages enhanced.<br />
<br />
传教士将欧洲知识书籍翻译成中文，实际上不仅传递了知识，也提高了他们外语学习的能力。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
传教士将欧洲的知识书籍译成了中文，从而将知识的传递落到了实处。人们的外语学习能力也得到了提高。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:53, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
During history, the authoritarian rule was replaced by democracies. In China, this was the case with the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. During history, the power of the church was also restrained with protestant reformism.<br />
<br />
在历史上，专制统治被民主取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改良主义的制约。<br />
<br />
在历史上，专制统治被民主制所取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，新教改革派也限制了教会的权力。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 04:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在历史上，独裁统治被民主政体所取代。而在中国，中华民国于1912年成立就是这样的事件。历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改革主义的制约。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:27, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Religions are more or less tolerant regarding people believing in different religions or regarding atheists. Islam in average is less tolerant the Christianity. <br />
<br />
宗教对于相信不同宗教或无神论者的人或多或少都是宽容的。平均而言，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。<br />
<br />
各大宗教对于有别的宗教信仰的人或无神论者或多或少持宽松态度。一般而言，伊斯兰教对基督教徒的宽松度较低。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 05:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
任何宗教对于信仰不同宗教的人或无神论者都有着或多或少的宽容。一般来说，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Since two millenia, Europe has been dominated by Christianity and China mostly by ancestor worship, with a huge tolerance towards Buddhism, Daoism and other forms of religious practises. <br />
<br />
自两千年以来，欧洲一直由基督教和中国主导，主要是祖先崇拜，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教活动有着巨大的容忍。<br />
<br />
自从两千年以来，欧洲一直以基督教为主，中国大多以崇拜祖先为主，对佛教，道教和其他形式的宗教活动具有极大的容忍度。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自两千年以来，欧洲一直为基督教所主导，而中国主要为祖先崇拜所主导，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教信仰有着极大的宽容。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
2. Stagnant China停滞的中国<br />
<br />
Times when international China watchers (scholars, philosophers) and China experts (merchants, missionaries, members of delegations, scholars) idealized China (Chinoiserie) and when they demonized her (stagnation, Yellow peril) followed each other. <br />
<br />
国际中国观察家（学者、哲学家）和中国专家（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）理想化中国（中国风）以及妖魔化她（停滞、黄祸）的时代相互依存。<br />
<br />
国际上中国的关注者（学者、哲学家）和对中国颇为了解的人（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）先是把中国理想化（Chinoiserie），接着又把中国妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:00, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国际上中国的观察者们（学者、哲学家）和中国通（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）把中国理想化(中国风）、妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）的时期是互相交汇的。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Western Sinology has long declared the "stagnation" in China as being “without an alternative” and as “being caused by Confucianism”. However, China showed a disruptive economical development since 1978, which proves this narrative wrong. Now also the Chinese "economic miracle" is explained by the Western sinologists with Confucianism. <br />
<br />
西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“没有其他选择”和“由儒学引起的”。 然而，自1978年以来，中国显示出飞速的经济发展，证明这种说法是错误的。 现在中国的“经济奇迹”也被西方汉学家用儒学解释了。<br />
<br />
西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“无法避免的”，“由儒学造成的”。然而，从1978年来，中国的经济出现了颠覆性的发展，证明这种说法是错误的。现在，西方汉学家又用儒学去解释中国的“经济奇迹”。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:00, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
Now is the time for Western Sinology to admit its historical mistake and to overcome the eurocentric and racist dogma of “stagnation” by diversification. The exchange with Chinese colleagues like here at the congress offers a good opportunity to do so.<br />
<br />
现在是西方汉学承认其历史错误、克服多元化“停滞”的欧洲中心和种族主义教条的时候了。在这里与大会上的中国同事交流提供了一个很好的机会。<br />
<br />
<br />
现在，西方汉学应当承认自己的历史错误，并通过多样化来克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条。本次大会上与中国同事的交流为此提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 04:53, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
现在是西方汉学承认历史错误，通过多元化克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条的时候了。本次大会上与中国同事的交流提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
With the overall turn from admiring China to demonizing China, also Hegel started to judge on China as a “stagnant” empire. <br />
<br />
随着从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的整体转变，黑格尔也开始判断中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。<br />
<br />
从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国，黑格尔也开始认为中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
随着黑格尔从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的全面转变，他也开始认为中国是一个“停滞”的帝国。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 04:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Although he found evidence that Confucius had invented the Golden Rule, he described China as the lowest stage of a stairways to the world Geist# with Berlin at the top. His condemnation of China was taken over by Marx who condemned China too. <br />
<br />
尽管他发现了孔子发明黄金法则的证据，但他将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居榜首。他对中国的谴责也被谴责中国的马克思所接管。<br />
<br />
尽管他发现了黄金法则由孔子发明，但他仍将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居阶梯之首。他对中国的谴责也由谴责中国的马克思所接替。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 06:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管他发现了黄金法则是由孔子发明的证据，他仍将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居该阶梯之首。他对中国的谴责为同样谴责中国的马克思所接管。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 07:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
There were several narratives establishing a Great Divergence or arguing for little divergences during the early stage of globalization. However, new rediscoveries of ancient Chinese translations of Western books of knowledge and new statistics of sugar consumption (which was for the most time higher in China than in Europe) question these narratives today.<br />
<br />
在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了一种大分歧或争论很少的分歧。 然而，中国古代西方知识翻译的新发现以及食糖消费的新统计数据（这在中国的时间比欧洲最高）在今天质疑这些叙述。<br />
<br />
有几种说法造成了巨大的分歧，或主张在全球化的早期阶段几乎没有分歧。然而，对西方知识书籍和糖消费新统计数据 (中国的糖消费量比欧洲高得多) 的中国古代翻译的新发现质疑了今天的这些说法。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了极大的分歧，或争论较小的分歧。 然而，如今，有关西方叙事的古汉语翻译的新发现和食糖消费的新统计数据（在中国多数时候高于欧洲）都质疑这些叙述。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:44, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
'''3. Western Sinologists as Red Guard作为红卫兵的西方汉学家'''<br />
<br />
Whenever science and scholarship serves an ideology or a religion, it gives up its objectivity and it betrays the fundamental principles of science and scholarship, e.g. the principle that you conduct research independantly without any predestined results and that you accept the results whatever they are.<br />
<br />
每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 你独立进行研究而没有任何预定结果的原则，你接受的结果无论它们是什么。<br />
<br />
每当科学和学术服务于一种意识形态或宗教时，它就会失去其客观性，并会违背科学和学术的基本原则，例如这一项原则：当你独立地进行一项没有任何注定结果的研究时，你就得接受任何研究结果。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 在你独立进行研究时，你可能会想要一个预定好的结果。你可能不太愿意接受不想要的答案。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Sinologists and scholars of Chinese Studies are scholars who deal with the subject of China. To keep the distance, it is good that they are able to freely travel to and out of China in order to be able to change perspectives and to keep the distance.<br />
<br />
中国研究的汉学家和学者是处理中国主题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地进出中国以便能够改变视角并保持距离。<br />
<br />
汉学家和中国研究学者都是研究中国主题的学者。为了区分不同，他们能够自由进出中国，以便能够改变视角去研究不同方面，这是非常好的方法。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉学家和中国研究学者是研究中国问题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地往返于中国，以便能够改变视角，保持距离，这是很好的。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
There was a time at the end of the 1960s, when the Western capitalism and establishment was challenged, initi-ated by images from the Vietnam war, dismantling the cruelty of war, where American soldiers used unfair tech-niques like chemical weapons against civilians in Vietnam. The photo of the naked children, scared to death from the napalm air strikes and running away in panic, changed the attitude of the people in the USA and in Europe against the institutionalized form of capitalism. Suddenly, the people, who were assured to be the “good ones” asked instead if they were the “bad ones” and had to change their systems towards peaceful coexistence. <br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义的形成和建立受到挑战，受到越南战争的影响。资本主义使战争看上去不那么残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。看到裸体儿童的照片，看到他们在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分的模样，惊慌而逃的身影，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义的态度。 突然之间，那些发誓要成为“好人”的人们反而会质疑自己是否是“坏蛋”，并且不得不改变他们自己的方式以实现和平共处。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义和建立受到越南战争的影响，摧毁了战争的残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。 裸体儿童的照片，在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分，在恐慌中逃跑，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义形式的态度。 突然之间，那些被保证成为“好人”的人们反而要求他们是“坏人”，并且不得不改变他们的制度以实现和平共处。<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Western sinologist in the whole world were too ready to believe the propaganda of a successful “Great Proletari-an Cultural Revolution”. In 1961 Defense Minister Lin Biao instructed the army journal ''People’s Liberation Army Daily'' to print one saying of Mao each day. Sorted thematically, the first collection of these sayings was published in 1964. The little red book with sayings by Mao Zedong was printed more than 740 million times in China to supply every citizen with a copy. During its peak of popularity 1966-1971, it was the most printed book, it was printed in more than 30 languages more than a billion times. <br />
<br />
全世界的西方汉学家都准备好相信成功的“无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传。 1961年，国防部长林彪指示军民报“人民解放军报”每天打印一篇毛泽东的语录。 按主题排序，这些说法的第一个集合于1964年出版。毛泽东的红宝书在中国印刷了7.4亿多次，为每个公民提供了一份副本。 在1966年至1971年的人气高峰期间，它是印刷最多的书，以超过30种语言印刷超过十亿次。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全世界的西方汉学家都不敢相信“伟大的无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传竟如此成功。1961年，国防部长林彪指示军队日报《人民解放军日报》每天刊登一篇毛泽东语录。按主题分类，这些语录的第一本合集于1964年出版。《毛泽东语录红皮书》在中国印刷了7.4亿多册，几乎人手一本。在1966至1971年间，该书的印刷量达到顶峰，被翻译成30多种语言，印刷超过10亿次。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
整个世界的西方汉学家都太相信“伟大的无产阶级-文化革命”的宣传了。1961 年，国防部长林彪指示“人民解放军日报”每天刊登一篇关于毛泽东的文章。按主题分类，这些谚语的第一次收集是在 1964 年出版的。毛泽东写的红色小本子在中国印刷了 7.4亿 多次，为每个公民提供了一本。在 1966-1971 年的鼎盛时期，它是最受欢迎的印刷书籍，以 30 多种语言印刷了超过 10亿 次--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:58, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Jean-Luc Godard released his film “La Chinoise” in August 1967, displaying a youthful Parisian Maoist sect. This lead to a popularity of this ideology among Western experts of Chinese Studies.<br />
<br />
Jean-Luc Godard于1967年8月发行了他的电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。这导致了这种意识形态在西方中国研究专家中的流行。<br />
<br />
让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）于1967年8月发行了电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在西方中国研究专家中流行。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:31, 20 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
1967年8月，让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）发布了其电影《中国姑娘》，电影中展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在那些做中国研究的西方专家中流行开来。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Recently, Cambridge University Press published a collection of memories of how Western sinologists and young intellectuals have received and embraced Maoism in the 1960s and 1970s. <br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列关于西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代接受和信奉毛泽东思想的回忆。<br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代就已接收并信奉毛泽东思想。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:19, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子在20世纪60年代和70年代对毛泽东思想的接受和信奉情况。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:28, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
John Gray in a book review has summarized main points of the book. I mostly follow his summary here. He de-scribes how French thinkers received this film:<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：<br />
<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了这本书的要点。 我将在此列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
约翰·格雷在书评中总结了他这本书的主要观点。在这里，我主要是跟随着他的总结。他描述了法国的思想者是如何接受这部电影的：--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他讲述了法国思想家对这部电影的评价：--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 04:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg: “Mao’s language of violence had a certain rhetorical appeal.” In fact, it was his combination of rhetorical violence with sub-Hegelian dialectical logic that proved so irresistible to sections of the French intelligentsia. Eulogising Mao’s distinction between principal and secondary contradictions, Louis Althusser deployed Maoist categories as part of an extremely abstract and, indeed, largely meaningless defence of “the relative autonomy of theory”. <br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg:“毛泽东暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他的修辞暴力与亚黑格尔的辩证逻辑相结合，对法国知识分子的各个部分来说是如此难以抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分,路易·阿尔都塞将毛泽东主义者分类作为极其抽象的,实际上是对“理论相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是因为他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 路易斯·阿尔都塞颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，并将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上是对“理论的相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”实际上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:43, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Althusser’s student Alain Badiou (for many years professor of philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure) continued to defend Maoism long after the scale of its casualties had become undeniable. As recently as 2008, while commending himself for being “now one of Maoism’s few noteworthy representatives”, Badiou praised Mao’s thought as “a new politics of the negation of the negation”. From one point of view, this stance is merely contemptible – a professorial pirouette around a vast pile of corpses. But one must bear in mind the fathomless frivolity of some on the French left. Already in 1980, two former Maoist mili-tants had announced their rejection of the creed in the language of fashion: “China was in . . . Now it is out . . . we are no longer Maoists.” Against this background, Badiou’s persistence is almost heroically ab-surd. <br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生Alain Badiou（多年来在巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在其伤亡人数不可否认之后很久就继续捍卫毛派。 就在2008年，尽管称赞自己是“现在是毛派少数几个值得注意的代表之一”，但巴迪欧称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。 从一个角度来看，这种立场仅仅是可鄙的 - 围绕着一大堆尸体的教授旋转。 但是人们必须牢记法国左翼一些人的无聊轻浮。 早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子就已经宣布以时尚语言拒绝信条：“中国是在中国。。。 现在它出来了。。。 我们不再是毛泽东思想者。”在这种背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是荒谬的荒谬。<br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生阿兰·巴迪欧（多年来一直是巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在伤亡人数不可否认之后很久仍继续捍卫毛派。就在2008年，巴迪欧称自己“现在是毛泽东主义为数不多的重要代表之一”，并称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。某种程度上来说，这种姿态简直是可鄙的——围绕着一大堆尸体旋转的教授。但是，我们必须记住一些法国左翼人士不可理喻的轻浮。早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子已经用时尚的语言宣布拒绝这一信条：“中国在。现在它出来了。在这样的背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是英勇无畏的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill has documented, that Maoist influence in Italy and Yugoslavia was even wider: <br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill证明，毛派在意大利和南斯拉夫的影响甚至更为广泛：<br />
<br />
“In Italy Mao-mania was not purely a left-wing phenomenon. Some ultra-right groups quoted their Little Red Books to justify their arguments.” In 1968-73 the neo-fascist party Lotto di Popolo (“the people’s fight”) lauded Mao as an exemplary nationalist and resolute opponent of US global hegemony. <br />
<br />
“在意大利，毛派狂热不仅仅是一种左翼现象。 一些极权团体引用他们的红皮书为他们的论点辩护。“1968年-1973年，新法西斯政党Lotto di Popolo（”人民的斗争“）称赞毛泽东是模范民族主义者和美国全球霸权的坚决反对者。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:13, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In a footnote he observes <br />
在他的脚注中，他注意到：<br />
<br />
“Nazi-Maoist movement in Italy included many other figures and groups” besides the Lotto di Popolo. <br />
<br />
除了Lotto di Popolo之外，“意大利的纳粹毛派运动包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
<br />
Gray beklagt#: “It is a pity this aspect of Mao’s influence is not explored in greater detail.” One of the reasons may be that the generation of Maoist sinologists later were the ones to document their own history, the history of sinologists, but they never came to terms with it, very much like the 1960s activists with sympathy for the German “Red Army Fraction”, who later became part of the establishment, even ministers in the government, and did not want to be reminded of their past.<br />
<br />
灰色beklagt＃：“遗憾的是，毛泽东影响力的这一方面没有得到更详细的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是后来毛派汉族的一代人要记录他们自己的历史，也就是汉学家的历史，但是 他们从来没有接受过它，非常像20世纪60年代积极分子同情德国“红军分数”，后来成为该组织的一部分，甚至是政府的部长，并且不想被提醒他们的过去。<br />
<br />
在他的脚注中，他表示，参与者除了Lotto di Popolo外，“意大利纳粹毛派运动还包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
Gray beklagt#表示：“遗憾的是，在这个层面，毛泽东的影响未得到更细致的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是，后来的毛泽东思想汉学家只记载他们自己的历史，即汉学家的历史。他们从不接受毛泽东思想，这就很像二十世纪六十年代的积极分子同情德国“红军纵队”。该纵队的人后来成为该组织的一部分，有的甚至还成了政府机关部长。这些汉学家不想回忆起自己的历史。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Gray writes in his book review: 格雷在他的书评中写道：<br />
<br />
“In a programmatic introductory essay Alexander C Cook compares the Chinese leader’s book to a “spir-itual atom bomb” and considers its global fallout. Showing how it reflects the influence of the choral sing-ing introduced into China by 19th-century Christian missionaries, Andrew F Jones provides an illuminating account of the rise of the Maoist pop song. Taking as her starting point the global distribution of the Little Red Book to over a hundred countries in the eight months between October 1966 and May 1967, Xu Lanjun examines the process of translation in the context of Maoist ideas of global revolution. Quinn Slo-bodian discusses the impact the book had in eastern and western Germany. In the concluding essay, Ban Wang considers the Little Red Book and “religion as politics” in China. Elsewhere, its influence in Tanzania, India, Peru, Albania and the former Soviet Union is discussed.”<br />
<br />
“在一篇程序化的介绍性文章中，亚历山大·库克将中国领导人的书与“精神原子弹”进行了比较，并考虑了它的全球影响。 安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了它如何反映19世纪基督教传教士引入中国的合唱歌曲的影响，为毛泽东主义流行歌曲的兴起提供了一个有启发性的说明。 在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书的全球分布为一百多个国家，在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下考察了翻译的过程。 Quinn Slobodian讨论了该书在德国东部和西部的影响。 在最后的文章中，王班并认为红宝书和中国的“宗教为政治”。在其他地方，讨论了它在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。”<br />
<br />
“在一篇纲领性的导言文章中，亚历山大·C·库克（Alexander C Cook）把这位中国领导人的书比作是一颗“精神原子弹”，并认为这对全世界都产生了辐射效应。安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了19世纪基督教传教士将合唱引入中国后所造成的影响，并生动地讲述了毛泽东主义流行歌曲是如何兴起的。在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书销往的全球一百多个国家为着手点，考察了在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下的翻译过程。奎因·斯洛博迪安（Quinn Slo-bodian）探讨了该书对德国东部和西部的影响。在这篇文章的最后，王斑研究了红宝书并将其视为中国的“宗教政治”。除了探讨对中国的影响，还讨论了在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。"--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
“In West Germany in the late 1960s, the Little Red Book “resembled simultaneously an accessory of the classical workers’ movement and a modish commodity of the educated elite”. In theatres, across from the refreshments, there were glass cases “full of pretty red Mao bibles (two Deutsche Marks each)”. As an anti-consumerist commodity, the book became “a marker of social distinction within a commercial market”.”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，红宝书”同时也是古典工人运动的一部分，也是受过教育的精英的一种时尚商品”。 在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。 作为一种反消费主义商品，这本书成为“商业市场中社会区别的标志”。”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，（毛泽东的）红宝书“是古典工人运动的读物，同时也是教育良好的精英阶层中的畅销书。”在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。作为一种反消费主义的商品，这本书成为了“商业市场中社会差异的标志”。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Condemned as distorting Mao’s ideas and exerting a “widespread and pernicious influence”, the book was withdrawn from circulation in February 1979 and a hundred million copies pulped.”<br />
“这部书被谴责为歪曲毛泽东的思想并发挥“广泛而有害的影响”，于1979年2月撤销流通，并且有数亿份纸张被废弃。”<br />
<br />
“这本书受到了人们的谴责，认为书中歪曲了毛泽东的思想，并带来“广泛而有害的影响”，因此，该书于1979年2月停止发行，数亿份书籍被废弃。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
The popularity of the Chinese system in the West was at the peak when it had the most victims.<br />
<br />
中国体制在西方的受欢迎程度因其最多的受害者而达到了峰值。<br />
<br />
当受害者人数最多时中国制度在西方的受欢迎程度达到顶峰。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Today, even in China, the Cultural Revolution is evaluated as “10 Years of Chaos”. Mao Zedong’s approach to mobilize the masses in endless revolutions turned out to be a historical failure. <br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也被评为“十年动乱”。 毛泽东在无休止的革命中动员群众的方法被证明是历史性的失败。<br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也称为“十年动乱”。毛泽东发动群众进行无休止革命的做法被证明是历史性的失败。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
However, domestic Science and Scholarship today once more receives incentives to pretend an ideological use-fulness of their research results when applying for funds to conduct research projects. However, an independant science and scholarship serves any government best, because a government needs real and true research results, not sugar coated ones.<br />
<br />
然而，今天的国内科学和奖学金再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，独立的科学和奖学金最适合任何政府，因为政府需要真实和真实的研究结果，而不是糖衣。<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内学科及奖学金再次受到鼓励，要求在申请项目研究资金时伪称其研究结果具有意识形态有用性。但由于政府需要真实准确的研究结果，而非华而不实的研究结果，一项独立的学科及奖学金对任何政府都是绝佳选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:59, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内的科学学术研究就再次要求在申请研究项目资金时，其研究结果须表现为有助于意识形态建设。然而，独立的科学与学术研究能够最大程度地服务政府，因为政府需要的是真实的研究成果，而不是让其巧加粉饰。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:32, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天国内的科学和学术再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，可以假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，真正独立的科学和学术才能够最好地服务于政府，因为政府需要真正的和真实的研究结果，而不是徒有其表的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 01:54, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Freedom is always the freedom within the limits not to restrict the freedom of others. But this historical event posed a new question: When is it time to kill a massmurderer? If communism threatens to enslave a whole population with millions of death victims – how far is it justified to intervene or not to intervene? But when it is not just a mass murderer, but a whole group of people mislead by a leader, a whole administration of a country, how can you clearly differentiate between good and evil? Reality often consists out of different levels of grey.<br />
<br />
自由永远是限制的自由，而不是限制他人的自由。但这一历史事件提出了一个新问题：什么时候杀死一名群众？ 如果共产主义威胁到全世界数百万死亡受害者的奴役 - 干预或不干预到底有多大理由？ 但是，当它不仅仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且还是一群人误导领导者，一个国家的整个政府时，你怎么能清楚地区分善恶呢？ 现实通常由不同级别的灰色组成。<br />
<br />
自由永远是在不限制他人自由的范围内的自由。但是这一历史性事件向我们提出了一个新的问题：什么时候应该杀死一个杀人凶手？如果共产主义威胁要奴役数以百万计的死亡受害者，那么进行干预或不进行干预的合理性有多大差别？但是，当它不仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且是一群人被一个领导人，一个国家的整个政府误导时，该如何清楚地区分善与恶？现实通常是由不同层次的灰色组成的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心<br />
<br />
Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies at Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
揭牌仪式<br />
<br />
Launch Ceremony<br />
<br />
2020年9月14日<br />
<br />
September 14, 2020<br />
<br />
I congratulate the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies 洪堡跨学科研究中心 for its opening at Hunan Normal University and especially my German colleague and Humboldt expert Professor Ottmar Ette奥特玛·埃特教授 for his dedication to realize the Center. Ette is one of the leading experts about Humboldt, in 2014-2017 he was responsible for the part “Genealogy, Chronology, Epistemology” of the BMBF research project about Humboldt in the United States.<br />
<br />
祝贺湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心成立，尤其感谢我的德国同事、洪堡专家奥特玛·埃特教授为中心的建成所做的贡献。埃特教授是研究洪堡的主要专家之一，2014-2017年，他负责美国BMBF关于洪堡研究项目中“系谱、年代学、认识论”的部分。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
The Center has the best starting conditions: It is backed by the University Potsdam and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities 柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院, which spon-sors a 18 year long research project until 2033 “Science on the Move” about Humboldt, lead by Prof. Ette.<br />
<br />
该中心拥有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持的，该基金会资助了一项由埃特（Ette）教授领导，历时18年，一直进行到2033年，即关于洪堡“移动中的科学”的研究。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:54, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院提供支持，该基金会赞助了直到2033年一项长达18年的研究项目，即“洪堡运动科学”，由埃特教授领导。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具备最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持。直到2033年，该基金会一直赞助这一历时18年的研究项目，即埃特教授领导的“洪堡运动科学”研究。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
The Center could not have found a better Chinese partner: This new Center is opened at a Hum-boldian University, with a long tradition in transdisciplinary research and teaching, with chancel-lor Professor Jiang Hongxin 湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授, who is not only an internation-ally renowned scholar in English literature, but also the driving factor behind the internationaliza-tion and opening up of Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
洪堡跨学科交流中心找到了最佳的中国合作伙伴——湖南师范大学。该中心设立在洪堡大学，洪堡大学在跨学科研究和教学领域有着悠久的历史。湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授不仅是国际知名的英语文学学者，也是湖南师范大学国际化、对外开放的带头人。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
The success of Hunan Normal University is displayed in the rising position in the university rank-ings, in the number of study programs ranking top nationwide, in the growing community of in-ternational experts working at Hunan Normal University, in international cooperations, joint school projects etc. Also the staff working at the Center are ideally chosen, Ren Haiyan 中心副主任任海燕博士, who is familiar with English literature of the 18th century, Fan Ni, who is currently building up the German Department as well as Li Yaqin.<br />
湖南师范大学的成功体现在:在高校排名中不断上升，学习交流项目数量居全国前列，国际专家队伍不断壮大，国际合作日益广泛，在合作办学卓有成效。<br />
同时，师大的领导班子也是经过精心挑选，如师大中心副主任任海燕博士，熟知18世纪英国文学。范尼和李艳青教授最近联合开办了德语系。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Changsha is both the place of one of the earliest universities in China, founded in 976 CE, the Yuelu Academy 岳麓书院, and together with its attached High School, Hunan Normal University and its Foreign Studies College founded by Qian Zhongshu is famous for its history of educating leaders with a thinking outside of the box. Similarly, Humboldt has said: “How a person masters his fate is more important than what his fate is.” This is just what Humboldt fought for. Humboldt is famous not just in Germany and Europe, but also in the United States, Russia, Asia and world-wide. He shaped our understanding of universities, research, teaching and education. Today, it is safe to say that the German universities are Humboldian universities, also European ones, Ameri-can ones and certainly also Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
When Humboldt traveled Central Asia and wrote about China, he certainly never would have dreamed of the realization of such a Center to his honor in Changsha. However, he would have been overwhelmed and would see his dreams realized here. With this Research Center it is now possible to explore the relation of Humboldt and China in great detail. Moreover, the relation between China and Europe can be explored here from a transdisciplinary perspective. Coopera-tion is key. With Humboldt’s words: “Collaboration operates through a process in which the suc-cessful intellectual achievements of one person arouse the intellectual passions and enthusiasms of others.”<br />
<br />
当洪堡游历中亚，写到中国时，肯定做梦也想不到长沙会是实现他梦想中荣耀的地方。但那样的话，他虽会看到自己实现梦想，也会不堪重负。现在有了这一研究中心，我们可以更详细地探讨洪堡与中国的关系。而且，可以从跨学科的角度来探讨中欧的关系。其关键是合作。正如洪堡所说:“合作是是通过一个人的智慧成就激发其他人的智力激情和热情来实现的”<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
As Jean Monnet Chair of Hunan Normal University 欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授” and as the direc-tor of the International Chinese Studies Center at Foreign Studies Center I reach out with both hands to the new Center and offer to bring in European and Chinese networks, to start immediate and concrete joint research. <br />
<br />
I close with a final quote from Humboldt: “The most dangerous worldview is the worldview of those who have not viewed the world.” Therefore, the Center now allows scholars from other places in the world to see China and offers Chinese colleagues a bridge to Europe and interna-tional scholarship.<br />
<br />
And I wish the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies great success!<br />
<br />
作为湖南师范大学欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授”以及外国研究中心国际汉语研究中心主任的让·莫内主席，我两手准备着新的中心，并提议向欧洲和中国引进网络，以开始目前的具体的联合研究。<br />
<br />
最后，我引述洪堡的最后一句话：“最危险的世界观是那些没有看过世界的人的世界观。” 因此，该中心欢迎来自世界各地的学者参观中国，并为中国同事搭建通往欧洲和国际奖金的桥梁。<br />
<br />
祝洪堡跨学科研究中心取得圆满成功！--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
MARTIN WOESLER<br />
<br />
'''THE CHINESE PRODUCTION CULTURE<br />
<br />
Genuity, changes and compatibility with modern international production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''中国制造哲学'''<br />
<br />
原始传统、变化和对现代国际制造文化的兼容<br />
<br />
吴漠汀著<br />
<br />
歐洲大學出版社2011年<br />
European University Press 2011<br />
<br />
Content<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
Cultural approach<br />
<br />
National Cultures<br />
<br />
Approaches/Perspectives <br />
<br />
The Japanese Production Culture<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
China - Factory of the world<br />
<br />
中国——世界工厂<br />
<br />
Genuity of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
Made in China<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
Characteristics of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的特征<br />
<br />
Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes<br />
<br />
现代商品文化的形成及其原因<br />
<br />
Necessity is the mother of invention<br />
<br />
创造始于需要<br />
<br />
Changes in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的发展<br />
<br />
Roles in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的作用<br />
<br />
The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979<br />
<br />
1949-1979年社会主义的插曲<br />
<br />
Gaming in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的博弈<br />
<br />
Effects on the company<br />
<br />
对公司产生的影响<br />
<br />
Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?<br />
<br />
中国现代经营理念和商品文化是全球的标杆，这一点体现在哪里？<br />
<br />
Logistics<br />
<br />
物流<br />
<br />
Appendix: References <br />
<br />
附录：参考文献<br />
<br />
Appendix: Historical Timeline China<br />
<br />
附录：中国历史时间轴<br />
<br />
Index<br />
<br />
索引<br />
<br />
'''Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
中国现代商品文化<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
中国作为全球工厂是否为国际商品文化树立标杆？--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the Japanese economy lacked the finances for new machinery and, in consequence, decision-makers concentrated on optimizing existing resources and processes. Soon lean production, just in time production and quality circles became export hits, even though Japanese production culture in many ways remained typically Japanese - for instance on issues such as hierarchy and loyalty on the part of employees. Today, the modernity of a factory is measured by the extent to which these characteristics of Japanese production culture are put into practice. After the Second World War, this approach developed into a model for an international production culture.<br />
By the beginning of the 21st century, the Chinese economy had surpassed that of Japan;<br />
<br />
二战后，日本财政无力支撑新型制造业的发展，决策者只能大力利用已有的资源和工艺技术。尽管日本的制造文化在许多方面仍然具有典型的日本特征，比如等级制度以及雇员的忠诚度等问题，但很快，精益生产以及品质圈成为出口热门。而今，日本制造文化应用于实践的程度是衡量工厂现代化程度的重要标准。二战后，这种方法成为一种典型的国际制造文化。<br />
到了21世纪初，中国经济超越了日本。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
today, China is a global factory. This subproject analyzes and defines the "Chinese production culture“ and focuses on the question of whether any of its modern characteristics can serve as a model for international production culture. Based on surveys by Hofstede (2009), case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku (2006) and on fundamental thinking of Philip Huang, the project takes as its premise that the development of Chinese production culture falls into different historical periods: from the genuinely Chinese production culture of silk, china and tea production over the slumbering industrial revolution, the import of Western manufacturing culture, the building of larger production units in the socialist a tradition, to today’s mixed production culture with Japanese and Western elements.<br />
<br />
如今，中国是一个“世界工厂”，本子项目对“中国生产文化”进行了分析和界定，并着重探讨了中国生产文化的现代特征是否可以作为国际生产文化的典范这一问题。该项目基于霍夫斯特德（2009年）、洪/佩赫宁/凯莱海库（2006年）的案例研究和黄菲浦的基本思想，以中国生产文化发展为前提，从不同的历史时期进行探讨：从沉睡的工业革命时期真正的中国丝绸、瓷器、茶叶生产文化，西方制造文化的进口，社会主义传统中大型生产单位的建设，到当今中日两国混合生产文化与日西元素的混合。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:02, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
But still today's production culture comes with some genuinely Chinese characteristics: the Confucian understanding of the relation boss - team leader – employee, hierarchy, the concept of face (and critique), the informal network management in the decision finding process, the esteem for the concept of age, nepotism, the play instinct (including imitation), flexibility and speed. This subproject explores which of these elements are exportable in principle and which ones can be profitably implemented within international production cultures.<br />
<br />
但今天的生产文化仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对老板-团队领导-员工关系的理解、等级、脸观（和批评）、决策查找过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、游戏本能（包括模仿）、灵活性和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可输出的，哪些元素可以在国际生产文化中有利可图地实现的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
但如今的文化生产仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对“老板-团队领导-员工”关系的理解、等级、脸面观（和批评）、决议过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、好玩的天性（包括模仿）、灵活度和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可以输出的，哪些元素可以在国际文化生产中有利可图。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Cultural approach'''<br />
文化方法<br />
<br />
As a cultural scientist, the author of this script applies the approach of Cultural Science to describe economical cultures or subcultures. One of the subcultures of economical culture is the way or culture of management and production.<br />
<br />
作为文化科学家，该脚本的作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。 经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
作为一名文化科学家，本文作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After a phase of several decades in which mathematics has found its way into economics, cultural studies has also been rediscovered by economics in recent years.Cultural studies can be a helpful supplement, for example, when predictions for economic behavior need to be made, for example in models. The economic sciences initially contribute Homo oeconomicus, the self-interest maximizer. In recent years, especially since 2000, many experiments have shown that humans often behave diametrically opposed to self-interest:<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段之后，近年来文化也被经济学重新发现了，例如当需要对经济行为进行预测时， 比如在一些模型中，文化研究可以作为有益的补充。经济科学起初是对自利最大化者经济人的贡献。 近年来，尤其是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为常常与自我利益截然相反：--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段后，近年来经济学也重新发现了文化研究。例如，当需要对经济行为进行预测时，比如在模型中，文化研究可以是一种有益的补充。经济科学最初贡献了“经济人”，即利己最大化者。近年来，特别是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为往往与自身利益截然相反:--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
'''Case 1) The bag of oranges'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: An orange seller sells bags of oranges to tourists. He has a few rotten oranges that he could put in the bags at the bottom. The tourists would not notice it when buying and would not go to this place again because of a few rotten oranges. <br />
<br />
Behavior: He does not do it, however, but throws the rotten oranges away.<br />
<br />
Cultural-scientific explanation: In the present case, the merchant is thus ethically-morally socially responsible out of a sense of justice.<br />
案例1)橘子袋<br />
最初的情况:一个卖橘子的人把成袋的橘子卖给游客。他有几个烂橘子，他可以把它们放进底部的袋子里。游客在购买时不会注意到它，也不会再去这个地方，因为有几个烂橘子。<br />
行为:但是他没有这样做，而是把烂橘子扔了。<br />
文化-科学的解释:在当时的情况下，商人出于正义感而负有伦理道德上的社会责任。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
One can try to construct a self-interest with the help of neurobiology: Biology leaves him no choice - if he behaves justly, although he might behave unjustly, he is rewarded with dopamine and other happiness hormones. If he were to behave unfairly at all times, he would have a guilty conscience, coupled with the fear of being caught, and sooner or later he might get stomach ulcers. In the long run, acting justly secures his life statistically better, also with regard to the economic value of his own life. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
However, if you ask the orange seller, he will at best say that it would be unfair to cheat his customers. Of course, there will always be a small number of fraudulent orange sellers in such experiments who value short-term profit more highly than long-term physical damage, if they expect it at all. And they will perhaps adopt a world view to avoid a guilty conscience, such as that rich tourists should give some of their wealth to poor orange sellers. And there will be people who cannot distinguish right from wrong due to a corresponding anatomically detectable defect in the reward system.<br />
然而，如果你问卖橘子的商家，他充其量会告诉你欺骗他的顾客不公平。当然，总会有一小部分虚假的商贩，他们考虑更多的是短期内的获利而不是长期上身体方面的伤害。而且，在他们的世界观里面，会存在去避免良知羞愧的想法，比如认为：富有的游客理应给贫穷的卖橘子的商贩一些金钱。并且由于在奖惩体系里面有一种自动化的追踪手段，有些人就不会在对和错之间进行区分。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:58, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The following experiments are some of the classic and most frequently conducted and tested experiments to complement the maximization of self-interest:<br />
<br />
'''Case 2) Ultimatum game: share 10 Euros'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: A student in Bonn is offered 10 €. The only condition: He has to give any partial amount to his fellow student. His fellow student has the right either to accept the amount allocated to him or to refuse to accept the whole 10 € for him and his fellow student.<br />
<br />
以下实验是一些经典且最常进行和测试的实验，以补充自我利益的最大化：<br />
案例2）最后通牒博弈：分享10欧元<br />
初始情况：向波恩的一名学生提供10欧元。 唯一的条件：他必须给他的同学任何部分款项。 他的同学有权接受分配给他的款项，或者拒绝接受他和他的同学的10欧元。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Prediction according to the self-interest maximization: The first student will keep 9,99 € and give 0,01 € to the fellow student. The fellow student would have to accept the 0.01 €, as this is more than 0.00 €.<br />
<br />
Conduct: In fact, about 90% of the students in similarly conducted experiments worldwide give 5 € to their fellow student. In the few cases in which the students want to give 2 € to their fellow student and keep 8 €, the fellow student refuses the 10 € completely, and so both go away empty-handed.<br />
根据自身利益最大化的预测:第一个学生将保留9,99欧元，并给予同伴0,01欧元。这个同学将不得不接受这0.01欧元，因为这超过了0.00欧元。<br />
行为:事实上，在全球范围内进行的类似实验中，大约90%的学生会给他们的同学5欧元。在少数情况下，学生想给他们的同学2欧元，留下8欧元，那个同学完全拒绝了这10欧元，所以两人都空手而去。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 04:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The maximization of self-interest cannot explain the behavior in both situations. Here, cultural studies provide an explanation that is supported by neurobiologists. <br />
<br />
Cultural studies explanation: <br />
<br />
For the fellow student, relative justice is more important than his own absolute gain. If the student takes more for no reason, there are various reasons not to allow this, e.g. educational. Furthermore, this is a decision under observation and the reward system rewards behavior in the sense of justice all the more, if justice has to be bought even with one's own loss.<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种情况下的行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个解释，这个解释为神经生物学家所认可。<br />
<br />
这个解释如下:<br />
<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。有很多理由反对学生无故得到超过自己应得的利益，比如教育方面的原因。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会奖励正义感的行为。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 03:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个神经生物学家所认可的解释。<br />
这个解释如下：<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。如果某同学无缘无故地得到更多，那么他就有更多样的理由不去遵守规则，比如在教育方面。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会鼓励正义行为。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个神经生物学家所认可的解释。<br />
这个解释如下：<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，应当将评选中的公平原则置于自己的绝对利益至上。如果某同学无缘无故地得到更多，那么他就有更多样的理由不去遵守规则，比如在教育方面。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会鼓励正义行为。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Neurobiologists also explain that men consider a constellation such as this experiment like a zero-sum game and feel a sense of competition, i.e. they see the greater gain of the other as a loss for themselves.<br />
<br />
By the way, the environment also influences the degree of self-maximization against a sense of justice:<br />
<br />
神经生物学家也解释道，人们将这个实验视为一种零和博弈，并且感到一种竞争感。也就是说，人们将他人的更大收获视作自己所遭受的损失。并且，环境也会影响到自我利益最大化和公正感之间的对比。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 14:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:42, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Case 3) Bank bill in letter'''<br />
<br />
If one lets a 5 Euro bill shine through the window of an envelope that is half hanging out of the mailbox, 4 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will grab it. If you paint a graffiti on the wall next to the mailbox and put some garbage next to the mailbox, 8 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will access it.<br />
如果把一封装有5欧元的钞票的半透明信封从窗户扔下去，那么十个路人中会有四个会捡起它。如果在邮箱旁边的墙上画上涂鸦，并在邮箱旁边放了一些垃圾，则每10个路人中就有8个人会走过去，对其视而不见。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:42, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Case 4) Primates<br />
<br />
Behavioral researchers have successfully demonstrated homo economicus in primates: There chimpanzees help each other to get shared food. If the first chimpanzee has the opportunity to give both of them the same amount or more food, it will give as much food as possible.<br />
<br />
案例4）灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物在经济观：黑猩猩之间互相帮助，获取共同的食物。 如果第一个黑猩猩有机会给他们两个人相同或更多的食物，它将给予尽可能多的食物。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
案例4)灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物中的“经济人”:黑猩猩会帮助彼此以获得共同的食物。如果第一只黑猩猩有机会给它们两只本身相同数量或更多的食物，它就会尽可能给予更多的食物。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Of course, the assumption of self-interest is a reasonable approach to explain phenomena in economic life, since companies are primates in many things, but in marketing they want to appear inwardly and outwardly as human, with social responsibility and a sense of justice. The Chinese Management and Production Culture (CMPC) has a clear distribution of power in the hierarchy, which corresponds to the maximization of self-interest, but the boss has a stronger responsibility towards his employees, which also includes private areas, so that there is an above-average social component.<br />
<br />
当然，个人利益的假设是解释经济生活现象的一种合理方法。因为在很多事上公司是灵长类动物，但公司在市场上向内向外都想像人一样呈现出一种社会责任感和正义感。中国管理和生产文化部门有着权力分布明确的等级制度，这符合个人利益最大化，但老板对其职员的责任更重，员工也包括私人领域，以至于社会因素平均高于其他因素。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 05:02, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
Häring, Norbert: „''Der Homo oeconomicus ist tot''“, in: Financial Times Deutschland (14.3.2001) http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
<br />
Schlicht, Ekkehart: „''Der homo oeconomicus unter experimentellem Beschuß''“, in: Martin Held, Gisela Kubon-Gilke & Richard Sturn (Hrsg.): ''Experimente in der Ökonomik. Jahrbuch normative und institutionelle Grund-fra¬gen der Ökonomik 2.'' Metropolis-Verlag, Marburg 2003, ISBN 3-89518-414-4, http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf<br />
<br />
参考文献<br />
<br />
诺伯特·海灵（Häring），“经济人已死”，载于：《德国金融时报》（14.3.2001）http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
Schlicht，Ekkehart：“实验经济下的同等经济”，载于：Martin Held，Gisela Kubon-Gilke和Richard Sturn（编）：经济学实验。 《经济学年鉴规范和制度基本问题》，第二届大都会出版社，马尔堡，2003年，ISBN 3-89518-414-4，http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:44, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
'''National Cultures''' <br />
<br />
Cultural differences decrease as the world becomes globalized. National characteristics become blurred, companies have to operate in different locations worldwide and sell their products in different markets.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, there are historically grown traditions that come from a time when there was often already intensive global trade, but less intensive cooperation and less exchange of information.<br />
<br />
'''民族文化'''<br />
<br />
随着世界全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征变得模糊起来，企业不得不在全球各地运营和在不同市场上销售产品。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展至今，那时全球贸易虽然已经十分密集，但密切合作更少，信息交流也更少。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 08:51, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
随着世界日益全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征也变得模糊起来，企业需在全球各地运营并将其产品销往各国市场。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展保留至今，那时全球贸易虽已十分频繁，但密切的合作以及信息的交流远不如今。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全球化程度愈深，文化差异愈少。民族特色模糊起来，企业需要在世界范围内运营，其生产的产品也将销往世界各地。但是，仍有传统沿袭历史发展至今，那时国际贸易已十分频繁，但合作及信息交流远不及今。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201123_trans&diff=10553320201123 trans2020-11-23T06:12:40Z<p>Peng Dan: /* Peng Dan 彭丹 */ --~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
History of Chinese Studies <br />
<br />
国际汉学史<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吳漠汀 (Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University 德國維籐大學，中國北京師範大學)<br />
<br />
Abstract: The roots of Chinese Studies lie as early as Chinese people started to reflect on parts of Chinese culture, which was as early as Chinese culture emerged. Especially foreign people defined Chinese culture distinctly in separation of their own culture, like ancient Greek philosophers and early delegations from the Roman Empire.<br />
<br />
摘要：汉学的根源可以追溯到中国人开始对中国文化进行反思的时候，也可以追溯到中国文化出现之初。尤其是一些外国人，如古希腊哲学家和罗马帝国的早期代表团，他们定义下的中国文化是与自己本土文化完全分开的。<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
From the very beginning, Western Scholars of Chinese Studies were closely cooperating with Chinese partners, so that Chinese Studies cannot be limited to Overseas Chinese Studies. Merchants went beyond their trade business and created travel reports and first translations of Chinese literature. Missionaries for the first time studied systematically the Chinese language and culture, translated the Chinese Classics and Four Books into Latin.<br />
起初，研究汉学的西方学者与中国伙伴密切合作，所以汉学研究并不局限于海外汉学研究。商人不仅从事商业贸易，撰写旅行游记，并且首次翻译了中国文学。传教士第一次系统研究了中国语言和文化，将中国文学名著和四书译成拉丁语。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 01:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Their idealized descriptions of China stimulated the Chinoisérie and the positive reception of China among philosophers of the enlightenment, which saw China as a secular empire. Then, the China-image turned to the worse with Western scholars ascribing China a static nature creating the so-called “Great Divergence”.<br />
<br />
他们对中国的理想化描述促进中国风形成以及促使启蒙哲学家对中国的积极接受，这种变化已然是把中国看作一个世俗帝国。随后，中国形象恶化，西方学者把中国定性为静态，形成了所谓的“大分流”。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
This narrative was challenged in the early 1980s with the start of the Opening and Reform Policy. Finally colleges and professorships were established first in the West and then in China. Today, Chinese Studies in the West and in China are enriching each other and are inseparably connected.<br />
<br />
Key Words: Chinese Studies, Sinology, Hanxue, Guoxue, delegations, philosophers, merchants, travel reports, translations, missionaries, enlightenment, Chinoisérie, Great Divergence<br />
上世纪80年代初，随着改革开放政策的开始，这种说法受到了挑战。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的中国学相互 促进，密不可分。<br />
<br />
关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
上世纪80年代初，在改革开放政策实施以后，这种说法遭到了质疑。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的国学研究相互促进，密不可分。<br />
<br />
关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 11:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
<br />
== Headline text ==<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Definition 定義<br />
<br />
Chinese Studies, also called Sinology (in German: Sinologie) or China Studies (in German: Chinawissenschaften, Chinakunde), is the academic discipline to study China in its geography, history, society, culture(s), language(s), literature(s) etc. It is mainly divided into the study of ancient and premodern China and of modern and contemporary China.<br />
定义 Definition<br />
汉语研究是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等的学术科目，人们也称之为汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或者叫中国研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde）。汉语研究主要分为中国古代和近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:40, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
定义 <br />
<br />
汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），这是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等各方面的学科，并主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 03:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
定义<br />
汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言、文学等方面的学科，主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:13, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the Chinese language, internationally the term “Hanxue” is used (first used in Japan as kangaku漢學/汉学, parallely to the term “Hanyu” 漢語/汉语 for Chinese). The term is not meant discriminative against non-Han minorities, since we have terms like “Hanyu” or “Germanic Studies” (the Germans were an ethnic tribe of many in todays Deutschland). In Chinese, domestically more often the terms “guoxue” 國學/国学 or “Zhongguo xue” 中國學 etc. are used.<br />
在中文里，“汉学”这一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为汉学，类似中文被称为“汉语”)。这一词语并不意味着排斥非汉人的少数群体，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼研究” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个的民族)的词语。中国国内“国学”或“中国学”等词更为广泛使用。By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:44, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在中文里，“汉学”一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为漢學/汉学，类似于中文中“漢語/汉语”一词)。这一词语并不意味着歧视非汉人的少数民族，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼学” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个民族)的词语。在汉语中，“國學/国学”或“中國學”等词更为广泛使用。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:37, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
There is a trend to divide Chinese Studies in sub disciplines dealing with traditional or modern China, while the term “Sinology” is more often applied to the traditional part. In quantity, scholars dealing with traditional China become less and those dealing with modern or contemporary China more. Of course, there are other exotic terms for phenomena related to China or Chinese people, like the term “Tang People Street” 唐人街 for Chinatowns.<br />
<br />
汉语研究之下往往又分为不同的子学科，致力于研究中国古代或现代，然而“汉学”这一术语更适用于中国古代。在数量上，研究中国古代的学者越来越少，而研究中国现代或当代的学者则越来越多。当然，还存在一些与中国或中国人相关现象的外来词，如“Tang People Street” 即唐人街。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Some Chinese scholars interpret the term “Hanxue” as reserved for the study of China by foreigners, implying often that the real “guoxue” could only be conducted by Chinese scholars, arguing you need to grow up in China in order to understand it. However, confronted with the case of overseas Chinese scholars or Western scholars growing up and working in China, the limitation of this racist distinction becomes obvious. <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Although in history we have rare examples of foreigners who were able to study China without Chinese partners (starting with language teachers) or without visiting the country, and Chinese Studies today often is conducted by mixed teams of domestic and foreign scholars.<br />
<br />
尽管有史以来，外国人不结交中国伙伴或是没去过中国就研究中国的例子鲜少出现。如今研究中国的通常都是都是由国内外学者组成的团队。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然在历史上，我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴的情况下(这些伙伴开始会是语言教师)或在没有访问过中国的情况下研究中国的例子，但如今的中国研究往往是由国内外学者以混合团队的形式进行的。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管在历史上我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（从语言老师开始）或没有访问中国的情况下来中国学习的例子，但是今天的中国研究通常由国内外学者组成的混合团队进行。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
纵观历史，很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（最初为语言老师）或没有拜访过中国的情况下研究中国，而且直至今日，中国研究也通常是在国内外学者协同合作的情况下进行的。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:13, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
The discipline itself, as established at universities, had a natural focus on language and literature (philology). Today, we have a broad range of sub disciplines like Chinese literature [epigraphy], language, culture, philosophy/ethics/aesthetics, history, political science, sociology, economy) 正如大学所建立的那样，该学科本身就专注于语言与文学（语言学）。如今，我们拥有广泛的子学科，例如中国文学[金石学]，语言，文化，哲学/伦理/美学，历史，政治学，社会学，经济）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:30, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
Emergence<br />
<br />
Although the first university professorships as we know them today were established only in the 1814, we find the origins of Chinese Studies in early descriptions of China by philosophers. That the empires knew early about each other is proven by delegations, exchanged even two thousand years ago between the Roman Empire and China.<br />
<br />
诞生<br />
<br />
虽然，如我们今天所知，第一个大学汉语教授职位于1814年才确立，关于汉学的起源我们能追溯到哲学家对中国早期的描述。各国代表团证实了各帝国之间相互知悉的事实，而早在两千年前，罗马帝国和中国之间就有了往来。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
兴起<br />
尽管我们今天所知的第一个大学教授职位是在1814年才设立的，但我们在哲学家对中国的早期描述中发现了国学的起源。早在两千年前，罗马帝国和中国之间就交换了代表团，这证明了两个帝国很早就已经相互了解。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 13:55, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Later we have records and first translations of travelling merchants (Marco Polo lived in the 13th century and travelled on land and by ship) and then by missionaries (starting with the 16th century). Later we have western philosophers (like Leibniz) and reports in journals dedicated to China.<br />
<br />
后来，我们有了旅行商人的记录和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上旅行），然后有了传教士（从16世纪开始）。 再后来，我们有了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），他们在研究中国的期刊上进行报道。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
后来出现了行商的记载和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上航行），之后出现了传教士（始于16世纪）。 再后来，出现了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），以及他们探索中国所留下来的有关记载。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The first scholarly view on China had the Christian missionaries, who studied Chinese language and culture in China. Therefore, the first translations of Chinese classics were done into Latin. The term “sinology” since the Latin term “sina” for China seems to point to the Qin Dynastie since 221 BCE. The main purpose of the missionaries was to baptize and therefore they also translated the bible into Chinese and reported on the so far mostly unknown China to Europe, reports which met a huge interest and demand in Europe.<br />
<br />
基督教传教士是最早对中国持有学术观点的人，他们在中国研究中国语言和文化。因此，第一批翻译的中国经典著作也就翻译成了拉丁文。汉学“sinology”一词源于拉丁语中的“sina”，意指公元前221年以来的秦朝。传教士的主要目的是施洗，因此他们也将《圣经》翻译成中文，并向欧洲报道迄今几乎不为人知的中国，这些报道满足了欧洲巨大的兴趣和需求。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Resources 资源<br />
<br />
There are a lot of national histories of Chinese Studies so far, but no detailed international or global history (see references).<br />
The Overseas Chinese Studies Center 海外漢學研究中心 at Peking Foreign Language University 北京外語大學 under the leadership of Zhang Xiping張西平 has been renamed in the 2010s to Research Center for the Study of Chinese Culture 中國文化研究中心#. Here a list of works on the History of Sinology:<br />
<br />
资源<br />
迄今为止，有许多关于汉学研究的民族历史，但是并没有十分详细的国际或者全球历史（参阅参考资料）<br />
在张西平的领导下，北京外国语大学的海外汉学研究，在2010年改名为中国文化研究中心。以下是汉学研究作品的列表。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:13, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
First contacts: Trade (without written documents)<br />
<br />
Genetic evidence shows that there were trade relations from Mesopotamia to Europe and China as early as 11000 BCE (cows, horses) and 10000 BCE (crops). <br />
China very early became an export region, as we can trace the genes of animals back to China 10000 BCE (pigs), 8000 BCE (chicken), and of silk cloth 5000 BCE.<br />
<br />
首次接触：贸易（无书面文件）<br />
<br />
基因证据表明：早在公元前11000年了，美索不达米亚就和欧洲，中国有牛羊贸易关系，公元前10000年，就有了农作物贸易关系。追溯到公元前1000年的猪和公元前8000年的鸡身上的动物基因，以及公元前5000年的丝绸来看，中国很早就是个出口地区了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
首次接触：贸易(无书面文件)<br />
<br />
遗传证据表明，早在公元前11000年(出现如像牛、马等动物贸易)和公元前10000年(出现农作物的贸易)，美索不达米亚与欧洲和中国之间就有贸易关系。追溯到公元前10000年猪的贸易和公元前8000年鸡的贸易，从中发现的动物基因，以及公元前5000年所交易的丝绸来看，中国很早就成为了一个出口地区。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
遗传学证据显示，早在公元前11000年美索不达米亚就和欧洲就有了牛马贸易往来；早在公元前10000年，美索不达米亚就和中国有了作物贸易往来。追溯动物基因，我们可以发现，公元前10000年中国就有了猪，公元前8000年就有了鸡，公元前5000年就有了丝绸。因此，中国很早就成为了商品出口地区。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Emergence of Chinese Studies: Philosophers<br />
Aristotle (384-322 BC) writes in the 4th century BC: “Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery.”[ Aristoteles: Politeia, Book VII, Part VII, translated by Benjamin Jowett, http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm, last visited Dec 5, 2010. In German: „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“, from: Aristoteles: Werke. Griechisch und Deutsch, vol. 6, ed. by Franz Susemihl, Aalen 1978 (Reprint of the edition Leipzig 1879), p. 409.]<br />
<br />
汉学的起源：哲学家<br />
亚里士多德（公元前384年-公元前322年）在公元前4世纪写道：“那些生活在欧洲寒冷地区的人们精气神十足但是缺乏智慧和技巧；所以虽然他们保留了相对的自由，却没有政治组织，也没有管理的能力。然而，亚洲人聪明且富有创造力，但是他们缺乏勇气，所以他们总是顺从和被奴役。” [ 亚里士多德：《政治学》，第七卷，第七部分，由本杰明·乔伊特翻译，http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm，最近一次访问日期2010年12月5日。德语原文为： „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“，引自：《亚里士多德作品集-希腊人和德国人》，第六卷，由Franz Susemihl, Aalen在1978年出版（1879年在莱比锡再版），第409页。]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The Emergence of Religious Missions with the Study of China as a by-product<br />
Between 1593-1607 the Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a press and produced 4 books on Christian belief. <br />
<br />
1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书<br />
<br />
In 1583 the influential Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrived in Canton and spent the rest of his life in China.<br />
<br />
1583利玛窦（耶稣会会士）抵达广州，在中国度过余生。<br />
<br />
宗教传教的出现<br />
1593年至1607年间，西班牙多米尼加使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:30, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书，这是汉学研究中有关宗教使命起源部分的衍生产物。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，并在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:10, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
Interest by European emperors in the beginning of the 18th century<br />
In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.<br />
<br />
在法国，对中国和中国语言的研究始于路易十四的赞助。在1711，他任命了一位年轻的中国人Arcadio Huang对皇家藏书的中文文本进行目录整理。黄的助手艾蒂安Fourmont，在1742年发表了一本中国语法书。<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China.<br />
<br />
1732年，来自那不勒斯的传布信仰圣部的传教牧师Matteo Ripa马国贤（1692–1746），在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆的第一个汉学学校：“中国学院”，它后来成为了今天的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711和1723之间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画家和雕刻师。马国贤从中国回到那不勒斯时，带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们都是汉语教师，组建了学院，在教皇克莱门特十二世的批准下向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。<br />
<br />
1732年，那不勒斯王国“圣公会”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即后来的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。当他回国的时候，他带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们在教皇克莱门特的授意下，组建学院、担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1732年，那不勒斯王国“传信部”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯建立了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即当今的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。在回到那不勒斯时，他带了四个年轻的中国基督徒。在教皇克莱门特十二世的授意下，他们组建学院，担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Chinoiserie<br />
<br />
Chinese objects of art as symbols of Chinese cultural tradition early spread to Europe, reaching the peak in the 18th century during the period of Chinoisérie“中国风”. Fascinated Collectors saved several artefacts for following generations. Their selection criteria allow to approach the guiding aesthetic principles behind their fascination. European imitations of these artefacts show in their similarities and differences to the originals and to the own cultural traditions the principles they followed to catch the reason for the experienced exoticism during the consumption of the cultural goods. Imitated imitated Chinese-style architecture, imitated Chinese paintings and imitated characters in paintings, tattoos and design, reveal what principles Westerners believed to guide Chinese traditional art.<br />
<br />
中国风<br />
<br />
作为中国传统文化象征的中国艺术品很早就传播到了欧洲，在“中国风”时期达到了顶峰。对此十分着迷的收藏家们为后人保存了几件文物。他们的选择标准很接近他们所欣赏的指导性美学原则。欧洲的工艺模仿品表明了他们自己的文化传统和原型的相似性和差异性，他们遵循的原则符合在文化商品的消费过程中对异国情调的体验。在绘画、纹身和设计方面的模仿特点、模仿中国风格的建筑和仿作的中国画，揭示了西方人眼里的中国传统艺术的指导原则。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:05, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Europe: Enlightened Philosophers end of the 18th century 欧洲：第18世紀末的启蒙哲学家<br />
<br />
During the enlightenment process in Europe, philosophers in their search for a vision of a world without religious control, discovered China and wanted to understand it as a secular ideal alternative to Europe. (Leibniz: Novissima Sinica, The Orphan of Zhao, Voltaire: wrote play “L'orphelin de la Chine” portrait of Confucius, Giambattista Vico.<br />
<br />
启蒙哲学家在欧洲汉学（莱布尼茨：《中国近事》，伏尔泰：《赵氏孤儿》、孔子肖像，维柯。<br />
<br />
1789-… Enlightened philosophers: Saw China as an enlightened kingdom with ethics instead of church and religion<br />
<br />
1789…启蒙哲学家：看到中国作为一个有伦理的开明王国而不是教会和宗教伦理<br />
<br />
一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
<br />
在欧洲的启蒙运动中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，了解到了中国这一国度，并将其视为欧洲脱离世俗的替代品。（莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
在欧洲启蒙运动的进程中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，发现了中国，并希望可以将其视为欧洲脱离世俗理想替代品。莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》 --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 09:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Europe: Professorships<br />
<br />
The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 6, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
由于和圣经的紧密联系，亚述学、埃及学的研究在正规的中国研究前发展充分；印度学研究代表了语言学发展的突破口。可能是因为中国文本和它们没有联系，所以直到1860左右，它才成为除了法国外的欧洲大学最后的研究对象。<br />
<br />
由于和圣经联系紧密，亚述学、埃及学的研究在中国正式研究前就已经展开了；印度学研究是语言学发展的突破口。或许是因为中国文本缺乏这些联系，所以直到1860年左右，它才成为除法国外欧洲大学最后的研究对象。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
欧洲：教授职位展正式<br />
由于和圣经的联系，亚述学和埃及学的研究的发展都在中国研究之前；印度学的研究在语言学中是一个极大突破。中国的文本可能是因为缺少这些联系因而在欧洲大学界最后才开始研究直到大约1860年，法国除外（Zurndorfer,中国圣经学 1999版，p.6, 引自维基百科《汉学》，2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
The first college to study Chinese was established in Italy. At the Academy in St. Petersburg in Russia, on March 23, 1741, the lecturer 伊拉利昂·罗索欣 started to teach Chinese Studies. He was also part of a mission sent to emperor Kangxi in Qing Dynasty.de<br />
<br />
首个教授汉语的大学创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，在俄罗斯圣彼得堡的学院，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣开始教授汉语学。他还参加了清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
首个学习汉语的学院创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始讲授汉学。该讲师也曾参加清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:54, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
首个研究汉语的学院是在意大利建立。 1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始教授汉语。他还参加了清朝对康熙进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
On December 11, 1814, the first Professorship of Chinese and Manchu was established at the Collège de France, the sinologist 雷慕莎 Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian Sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. <br />
<br />
1814年，研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立。雷慕莎自学了中文，占据了这一位置，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。<br />
1814年，首个研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立，雷慕莎自学中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:47, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1814年12月11日，首个汉学和满学的讲座席位在法兰西公学院成立，汉学家雷慕莎（Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusa）自学了中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一任汉学教授。而之后俄罗斯的汉学奠基人尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
雷慕莎的同仁分别有英国的Samuel Kidd（1797–1843）和德国的Wilhelm Schott（1807–1889），虽然在这两个国家头等重要的世俗汉学家是理雅各和加贝伦茨。理雅各等学者常常依靠华人学者如王韬等人的作品。<br />
<br />
<br />
阿贝尔·雷穆萨在英国和德国的同行分别是塞缪尔·基德（Samuel Kidd，1797-1843）和威廉·肖特（Wilhelm Schott，1807-1889），不过这两个国家最早出现的重要世俗汉学家是詹姆斯·莱格和汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德加布伦茨。像莱格这样的学者经常依赖于像王韬这样的华裔学者的作品。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:08, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
儒莲担任法兰西学院的汉学教授超过40年，他与雷慕莎一起开始他的研究，并在1833年继承了雷慕莎的工作。他以不仅针对古典文学、而且涉猎白话文学作品的翻译工作和和对满族的了解而闻名。沙畹在德理文于1893去世后继承了他的位置，沙畹在历史和语言领域上兴趣广泛。<br />
<br />
斯塔尼斯拉斯·朱利安（Stanislas Julien）在法兰西学院（Collègede France）担任中文主席40多年，从雷穆萨（Rémusat）开始学习，并于1833年继任。他不仅学习古典文学作品，还学习白话文学作品，并了解满族。 爱德华·沙畹在1893年侯爵·圣赫尔·圣丹尼斯（Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys）去世后继任。沙畹追求历史和语言的广泛利益（Zurndorfer，中国参考书目1999年第8-14页，引自Wikipedia“ Sinology”， 2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Rulian served as a professor of Sinology at the French Academy for more than 40 years. He started his research with Remusa and inherited Remusa's work in 1833. He is famous for his translation work not only for classical literature, but also for vernacular literary works and his understanding of Manchu. Chavannes inherited his position after De Liwen died in 1893. Chavannes has a wide range of interests in history and language. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
After the Opium war 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and the SOAS/London University were established.<br />
<br />
In 1875, Leiden University in the Netherlands started and in 1890 the sinologist 考狄 founded the first academic journal by Westerners on China, the Toung Pao 通报.<br />
<br />
1840年鸦片战争后，剑桥大学东方研究院和英国伦敦大学亚非学院成立。<br />
<br />
1875年，荷兰莱顿大学成立，1890年，汉学家考狄创办了第一个由西方人撰写的关于中国的学术期刊—《通报》。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In 1912, Richard Wilhelm, who had lived in China for about 30 years, taught at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Frankfurt and established a Chinese Seminar “中国学社” and together with Beiping’s Furen University the journal华裔学志.<br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, in Sweden the University of Gotheburg established East Asian Language and Culture Seminar, starting with Sven Hedin, who explored Western China, followed by the the Chinese linguist 高本汉.<br />
<br />
1912年，在中国居住了约30年的理查德·威廉在法拉克福的弗里德里希·威廉大学任教，并成立了中文研讨会“中国学社”，并与北平辅仁大学合作创办了《华裔学志》杂志。<br />
<br />
19世纪末，瑞典哥德堡大学创办了东亚语言文化研讨会，首创人是研究中国西部的斯文·赫丁，其后是中国语言学家高本汉。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the “commentarial tradition” through critical annotated translation. <br />
<br />
那时，中国在西方的形象是靠耶稣会学者传达的，本质上是儒家社会的形象，这样的形象主导了西方思想。在欧洲，有一些人学习说汉语，但大部分人学习写文言文，这些学者学习时会使用批判性的注释，属于“注释传统”的行列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:05, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在那个时候，中国在西方的形象在本质上是以耶稣会学者传达的儒家社会为主。在欧洲，有些人学学习说中文，大多数人则学写书面文言文。这些学者们通过批判的注释性翻译处在了所谓的“注释传统”。<br />
<br />
当时，耶稣会学者所传达的中国本质上是儒家社会的形象主导了当时的西方思想。在欧洲，虽然有些人学说汉语，但大多数人学的是文言文。这些学者是在所谓的“评论传统”通过批评注释翻译。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:32, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
耶稣会士学者传达的中国作为一个儒家社会的形象在当时根深于西方人的思想中。 尽管有些欧洲人学会了说中文，但大多数人仍然学习古典汉语。 这些学者通过批判性的注释翻译而处于所谓的“注释传统”中。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:31, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as “philological hairsplitting” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 14-15, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018). Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities.<br />
<br />
这种强调翻译经典文本的做法阻碍了社会科学方法论的使用或与其他传统的文本的比较。有学者称这类汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者逐渐多于传教士，并在西方大学为20世纪的汉学慢慢积累了实质性存在。<br />
这种对翻译经典文本的强调抑制了社会科学方法论的使用或对其他传统文本的比较。有学者将这种类型的汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者的人数逐渐超过传教士，并且到了20世纪，汉学在西方大学中也慢慢占据了一席之地。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 13:43, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Sinology in Germany <br />
<br />
Today, in Germany there are about 30 universities and universities of applied sciences with Chinese Studies.<br />
<br />
Since the beginning of the 19th century, people started to conduct research on China. In 1829–1831, the orientalist Carl Friedrich Neumann bought 12,000 Chinese books in Canton, which he shipped to Munich and which became the foundation of the East Asian Collection of the Bavarian State Library as well as the Berlin State Library. Since 1833 Wilhelm Schott taught Chinese and Chinese philosophy in Berlin.<br />
<br />
德国的汉学<br />
如今，在德国有大约30所大学以及应用科学大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑。这一举措使慕尼黑成为了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的基础。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
德国汉学<br />
<br />
今天，大约有30所德国大学和应用科技大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑，这一举措奠定了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的根基。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:58, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Pioneering research on China were the geological-geographical research trips by Ferdinand von Richthofen since the early 1860s. In 1887 the first Chinese language classes and sinological classes started at the Seminar for Oriental languages in Berlin. In 1889, the first German Chair of Sinology was established at the University of Leipzig, the first full professor was Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1912 the 2nd chair was established in Berlin with J. J. M. de Groot and in 1914 at the Colonial Institute in Hamburg with Otto Franke.<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学讲座在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二任主席由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学委员会在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二个委员会由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立了另一委员会。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 12:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
During colonial times, in which the German Empire held the Chinese colony “Kiautschou”, the interest in Chinese culture grew. The exile of many Chinese scientists in the period of National Socialism harmed the German Sinology sustainably. Since the opening up of the People's Republic of China in the 1980s, Sinology in Germany is no longer among the orchid subjects and new students of Sinology have good job prospects.<br />
<br />
在殖民时期，德意志占领了中国山东青岛的胶州市，人们对中国文化的兴趣与日俱增。纳粹时期许多中国科学家背井离乡，对德国汉学造成了持续的伤害。自20世纪80年代改革开放以来，德国汉学不再被束之高阁，汉学新生就业前景良好。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The change of attitude among early China experts with the example of the early reception of the Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
The Red Chamber Dreams shortly after publication in 1791 spread fast among the foreigners’ community including Robert Morrison (who incorporated parts of it into his language teaching material and dictionary already by 1813-1815).<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:59, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期中国作家的态度转变，以《红楼梦》的早期收录为例<br />
<br />
1791年，《红楼梦》出版后不久，便在包括罗伯特·莫里森(Robert Morrison)在内的国外社会迅速流传。（莫里森早在1813年-1815年就将《红楼梦》的部分内容引入其语言教材和词典中）--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The novel also was made known in partial translation both in English and French (by John Francis Davis) in Europe in 1819. However, for a few decades, the Western reviews of the book were mostly negative, revealing an ethnocentric approach, valuing Chinese literature below Western literature.<br />
<br />
1819年，《红楼梦》的英语和法语（John Francis Davis译）的部分翻译使这部小说知名于欧洲。然而，几十年之后，西方对于该书的评论大多是消极的，他们认为该书呈现出种族中心主义的观点，并且认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年,该小说还被译成英语和法语（约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯译（John Francis Davis）），因而在欧洲为人所知。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，这揭示了西方的一种民族中心主义，即认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:43, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年，这部小说在欧洲被部分翻译成英语和法语（作者:约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，即揭示了一种民族中心主义的态度，对中国文学的评价低于西方文学。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
It took almost a century to get to know each other better, to change attitudes from ethnocentric to dialectical, to stop exploiting the novel and to come to the insight that Chinese literature with Dream as one of its masterpieces was not only comparable to other world literatures but also could bring value to Western readers (Mayers 1867).<br />
<br />
经过几乎一个世纪，双方增进了解，并从“民族中心主义”的优越感向辩证思想转变，停止利用小说互相攻击，开始深入了解中国文学，不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，而且，更重要的是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。<br />
<br />
几乎一个世纪,增进了彼此的了解。双方从“民族中心主义”转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解中国文学。不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，更是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:17, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
近一个世纪，彼此之间增进了了解，从”民族中心主义“的优越感转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解以《红楼梦》为代表的中国文学，它不仅可以与世界其他文学相媲美，而且还可以为西方读者传递价值观。（梅辉立（Mayers） 1867年）。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Main Controversies<br />
<br />
a) The Great Divergence<br />
<br />
One of the main controversies in Chinese Studies is that for a long time China appeared economically backward (compared to Western European nations). Sociologists (Marx), philosophers (Hegel), economists (Kenneth Pomeranz: The Great Divergence) and sinologists tried to explain this with the static nature of Chinese economy due to Confucianism.<br />
<br />
主要的争议<br />
<br />
a)大分流<br />
<br />
汉学研究的主要争议之一是，长期以来，中国出现了经济落后的情况(与西欧国家相比)。许多社会学家(如马克思)，哲学家(如黑格尔)，经济学家(如肯尼斯·彭慕兰：《大分流》)和汉学家试图用儒家思想所导致的中国经济的静态性来解释这一现象。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:06, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Scholars have questioned this: Angus Maddison suggested that China was leading (rotating ranks with India) by GDP from 0 to 1550 so that the current development was a return to old status. Philipp C.C. Huang concentrated on rural developments and argued that only the concentration of production capibilities during the socialist reforms laid the foundation for today’s Chinese economical miracle. Today, sinologists argue that Confucianism is one of the main reasons for the economical miracle.<br />
<br />
学者们对此提出了质疑:安格斯•麦迪森认为，中国从0年到1550年在GDP上处于领先地位(与印度轮流排名)，所以目前的发展是一种对旧地位的回归。菲利普•黄关注农村的发展，认为只有在社会主义改革中集中生产能力，才能为今天中国经济奇迹奠定基础。今天，汉学家认为儒家思想是经济奇迹的主要原因之一。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 11:11, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
学者们提出质疑，奥格斯·麦迪逊认为中国从开始到1550年GDP一直处于领先地位（与印度不分伯仲），所以中国当今的发展只是回到了旧时的社会地位。菲利普 C.C.黄专注于乡村发展，并且认为社会主义改革时期将重心放在生产力上为如今中国经济奇奠定了基础。如今，汉学家认为儒家思想是中国经济奇迹的主要原因之一。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:06, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
“The Chinese have as a general characteristic, a remarkable skill in imitation, which is exercised not merely in daily life, but also in art. They have not yet succeeded in representing the beautiful, as beautiful; for in their painting, perspective and shadow are wanting.<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征，即拥有卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅体现在日常生活中，也体现在艺术中。但由于其绘画领域中缺乏透视法和阴影画法，他们无法充分展现事物的美。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
“总之，这个民族有种罕见的模仿能力，这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也用运到了艺术创作当中。美作为美的事物去展示对于这个民族来说并不成功，因为在绘画中缺少了透视和阴影。<br />
<br />
中国人有一个总体特征，那就是其超凡脱俗的模仿能力。这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也运用到了艺术创作当中。由于其绘画中缺乏透视法和阴影，他们无法淋漓尽致地表现出事物的美。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:28, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征：一种卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅运用于日常生活中，也运用在艺术领域。但由于画中缺乏透视和阴影，中国人没能成功展现出美感”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
And although a Chinese painter copies European pictures (as the Chinese do everything else) correctly; although he observes accurately how many scales a carp has; how many indentations there are in the leaves of a tree; what is the form of various trees, and how the branches bend; - the Exalted, the Ideal and Beautiful is not the domain of his art and skill. The Chinese are, on the other hand, too proud to learn anything from Europeans, although they must often recognize their superiority.” <br />
Hegel, The Philosophy of History (transl. J. Sibree, p. 155)<br />
<br />
即使中国画家原封不动地模仿欧洲的绘画，如若他知道鲤鱼有多少鳞片……，崇高的、理想的、美的事物也不是他的艺术土壤和擅长之处。” 黑格爾，《历史哲学讲演录》<br />
<br />
尽管一个中国画家原封不动地地复制了欧洲的图画（就像中国人所做的所有事那样）；尽管他能准确地观察到鲤鱼有多少鳞片；一棵树的叶子上有多少凹痕；各种树木的形状是什么，树枝是如何弯曲的；崇高、理想和美丽不是他的艺术领域和技巧。另一方面，中国人过于骄傲，不愿向欧洲人学习任何东西，虽然他们必须经常认识到自己的优越性。J、 西布里，第155页）--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
b) Chinese and Western scholarship<br />
<br />
Traditional Chinese education (focusing on self development and social harmony) differed much from Western scholarship (search for truth and universal human values). Chinese scholars of guoxue often do not recognize Western scholars of Hanxue as their colleagues. Today there are trends to return to Confucian education, teaching and scholarship in China, taking the Hanlin academy as example (see: Hong Kong College).<br />
<br />
b）中西学问<br />
<br />
中西方在传统教育方面又很大不同，前者侧重于追求自我发展和社会和谐，后者寻求真理和普世价值观。中国国学学者通常不把西方汉学学者当作同行。如今，儒家教育以及儒学研究在中国如火如荼，以翰林书院为例（见：香港大学）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:19, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
b）中西学术<br />
中国传统教育（注重自我发展和社会和谐）与西方学术（追求真理和普遍的人类价值）有很大不同。中国国学学者往往不承认西方汉学学者是他们的同僚。今天，中国教育有向儒学教育回归的趋势，以翰林院为例（参见：香港大学）。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:17, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Also Traditional Chinese Medicine has continued to be an alternative to Western medicine, although the general grouping into Yin and Yang has been proven to be arbitrary since objects/organs etc. historically were assigned to Yang for a time and to Yin at other times. However, acupuncture has been recognized by Western medicine to be effective. Western reproach towards Chinese scholarship is that it is not conducted in a free environment.<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体/有机体等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是随意的。然而，针灸仍被西医认为是有效的。西方对中国学术的指责是，它不是在一个自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 16:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体、器官等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，但是一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是任意的。然而，针灸已为西医所认可，但西方学者指责中国学术不是在自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
From Ethnocentrism and Exoticism to Universalism and Dialogue: <br />
the General Trend of Chinese Studies in the West - <br />
A Case Study of the Early Western Reception of Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
从种族中心主义和异国主义到普遍主义和对话：<br />
西方中国学之总趋势——以《红楼梦》早期西方接受为例<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler <br />
(Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University, Nanking Normal University)<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
“Chinese Studies” (Sinology, Chinakunde, Études Chinoises etc.) in general from its origins until today sees a main trend from ethnocentrism and exoticism to universalism and dialogue. Undergoing historical periods of Chinoisérie and then China-bashing during imperialist and colonialist times, Chinese Studies at universities and in associations like the German China Association has established a more objective view on China. <br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，汉学在大学和学术协会（如德中协会）里建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。<br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，大学和学术协会（如德中协会）的汉学建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ethnocentrism is still existing among Western sinologists today and has to be fought. Still, the contemporary trends globalization, digitalization and travel freedom offer the current generation of sinologists so far unseen possibilities of international cooperation, promising extremely fruitful especially between distant cultures like China and the West. <br />
但是，在当代西方汉学家中间仍然还存在民族中心主义，我们需要为此而抗争。随着全球化、数字化和“出境自由行”这三种当代趋向的出现，新一代汉学家获得了前所未见的国际合作可能，特别像是中西间如此大跨度的文化差异，其国际合作的前景和潜力更是无可估量。<br />
今天，很多西方汉学家依然带着民族优越论的思想，我们需要为此抗争。伴随着全球化、数字化和旅行自由的潮流，当代汉学家在国际合作上有了前所未有的可能；尤其是像中西这样如此大跨度的两个文化间，其合作的前景更是无可估量。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:57, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Key words<br />
Ethnocentrism, Exoticism, Universalism, Chinese Studies, German China Association, universal values, Gregor Paul, cooperation, China and the West<br />
<br />
關鍵詞<br />
宗族中心主義、異國主義、普遍主義、漢學/中國學、德中協會、普遍價值觀、Gregor Paul、合作、中國與西方<br />
<br />
When we define an academic category like “Chinese Studies”, we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads. Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently.<br />
<br />
当然，世界之间的联系远不如今天，诸如马和轮船之类的速度较慢的运输工具，以及诸如道路之类的基础设施往往损坏或危险丛丛。 因此，乍看之下，这些地区已经独立地发展了自己的文化、文明甚至第一语言。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 08:29, 21 November 20<br />
当然，世界各地区间的联系远不如今天；当时使用的都是马和船只这样的慢速运输工具，道路之类的基础设施也往往很原始，危险重重。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 06:02, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
<br />
最古老的文字文明的证据，可以追溯到公元前3500年，我们在美索不达米亚平原这片新月状的沃土中找到了苏美尔人的粘土板。随后在古埃及，然后是印度，最后在中国也相继找到了证据。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today. We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
<br />
但是我们对历史探索得越多,就有更多有趣的证据证明，比起看似可能存在的思维迁移，这些看似独立的发展中地区存在更多的贸易关系和思想交流，从历史角度来看，我们并不只是重新发现和重新评估丝绸之路,也是作为一个政治议程来重建它。我们今天在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据，在美洲和欧洲也发现了中国文明的早期证据。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:23, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
但我们越是探索历史，就会发现更有吸引力的证据：这些看似独立发展的地区之间的贸易关系和思想交流比思维流动性更频繁：丝绸之路不仅在历史上被重新发现和重新评价，而且在今天也被重建为政治议程。如今，我们在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据而在美洲和欧洲也同样发现了中国文明。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
文化科学比其他科学更受其研究对象的影响，因为我们是它的一部分，不能离开它去研究它。文化科学的历史从最初的跨文化冲突发展到今天的生活，文化相互交融，人们作为不同文化的一部分互相理解。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其研究对象影响更大，因为我们是文化科学的一部分，不能独立于它去研究它。文化科学的历史已经从最初的跨文化交流发展到今天，文化相互交融，同时人们作为不同文化的一部分相互理解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
<br />
When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
然而，文化之间的差异总是存在的，那是因为整合和分离的趋势是同时发生的。<br />
当不同文化存在时，对它们的比较便存在意义。文化有两个方面。一旦开始比较，便会发现其价值。在没有专家或该学科之前就已经发生了文化交流。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 03:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
<br />
因此，文化间的第一次比较是具有种族中心主义的：你拿你遇到的任何事物与你自己的文化相比较，认为它们是“其他的”、“外国的”、“外来的”。这时常伴随着情绪：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
因此，文化之间的第一次比较是具有民族中心主义的：拿你所接触的任何事物与自己的文化相比较，发现他们是“其他的”、“外国的、“异样的” 这常常混杂着个人情感的：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 03:27, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
<br />
你可以将文明分为所谓的“高级文明”和“低级文明”，“发达”和“欠发达”文化。 在文化相对主义时代，这是一种以民族为中心的方法。 但在后增长经济时代的今天，在经历了殖民化和传教化的不幸经历之后，我们知道，每种文化都是平等的，不能认为哪种文化的价值更高或更低。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
<br />
第一次通过西方人对中国文化进行深入的分析，不是来自商人，而是来自耶稣会士。对中国的了解是多么的少，这可以从以下事实中看出，只有耶稣会士设法澄清了鞑靼和基泰/卡泰两个帝国的神话，事实上，这两个帝国都是同一个（中国）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:36, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣会士。西方人对中国知之甚少可以从以下事实看出：只有耶稣会士成功地澄清了鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话事实上是相同的（都属于中国）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
西方第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的是耶稣会士，而不是商人。从只有耶稣会士才设法阐明鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话实质上是相同的（讲的都是中国）这一事实来看，西方对中方的了解少之甚少。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:04, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China. <br />
<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] <br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs.<br />
<br />
翻译偏离了原文，我们才猛然发现其中基督教三位一体的上帝。<br />
这是一种种族中心主义传统的出发点，它把原文本身解读成他者并异化，而不是把他者当作一种价值观来尊重，甚至允许它挑战自己的信仰。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword.<br />
<br />
连德国基督教传教士兼汉学家理查德·威廉在其影响深远的1919年道教翻译中也使用了基督教语言(信仰、天堂之门、来生等)，并在1925年在《论语》中使用上帝这一翻译。<br />
<br />
传教士们在几个大陆上给看似“落后”的土著人施洗，有时还用武力威胁。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals.<br />
<br />
许多被认为不太“发达”的文化受到了严重影响，甚至遭到破坏并且已经消亡。早些时候，“十字军”甚至发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
<br />
另一方面， 异域化表现在第一批来到欧洲的中国人所能接受的方式：这些文化在茶话会上被传下来，受到瞩目。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多在人们看来不是太“发达”的文化遭受了重创，甚至已经毁灭或消亡。早些时候，“十字军”发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
<br />
另一方面，对其他文化的异域化影响则表现在第一批来欧洲的中国人被欧洲人接纳：他们在参加各种茶话会，被人们奇怪地看待。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
<br />
很快中国货就成了异国情调的象征。中国的瓷器和小装饰品，甚至中国风格的建筑都在欧洲得以重现。狂热崇拜中国形象，被称为中国热，当然不是对真正中国形象的狂热。这股中国热甚至影响到伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家，他们把中国比作一个理想国家，这个国家没有宗教信仰和道德价值观，由一位睿智的皇帝所代表。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China.<br />
<br />
在欧洲，第一批中国文化的专家的任务是不再从民族中心主义的角度而是从科学的角度来解释中国文化，许多大学给予很多人教授头衔，他们早期的翻译显示出外来的附加痕迹，“中国风”也被中国的“山寨风”所抵制。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics. As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.黑格尔以他的文化排名延续了对中国的种族中心主义观点。尽管孔子已经发展出一套可与康德的“绝对命令”相媲美的“黄金法则”原则，但黑格尔却宣称中国哲学不如欧洲哲学，甚至认为看到了从孔子到佛陀、查拉图斯特拉、古希腊和罗马哲学的一步一步的地理发展，引领了欧洲哲学。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 04:44, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 04:44, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
<br />
Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.).<br />
<br />
错误百出的评论可以证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书没什么文采，但由于它是用北京方言所写，因而可以作为语言学习材料；居茨拉夫：主角宝玉真是一个爱耍小性子的女人；贾尔斯：“红楼梦没有在书中出现过”等等。）。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:17, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
书评中许多人对其的误解能证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书文笔拙劣，但由于是用北京话写的，因此可以用作语言学习材料;居茨拉夫：主角宝玉是一个被宠坏的女子; 贾尔斯：“红楼梦”一词没有在书中出现等）。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels.<br />
<br />
在这里，外来翻译只是用于取笑中国。巴罗介绍了一段《红楼梦》节选，描述的是宝玉和熙凤的外貌，弗兰西斯•戴维斯将其翻译成英文，但显然是为了“嘲笑花花公子和美丽佳人”。弗兰西斯•戴维斯从这本小说中挑选了两首诗歌翻译，但其目的不是为了诗歌本身，而是为了证明他自己的观点（这也是少数人的观点）—中国诗人明白，小说中的诗歌是具有一定“描写”功能的。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 06:47, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
此处，外来翻译只是用于取笑中国。巴罗挑选了《红楼梦》一节来描述宝玉和熙凤的外貌。弗兰西斯•戴维斯将其译成英文，但显然是为了“嘲笑花花公子和美丽佳人”。弗兰西斯•戴维斯从这本小说中挑选了两首诗歌翻译，但其目的不是为了诗歌本身，而是为了证明他自己的观点（这也是少数人的观点）—中国诗人明白，小说中的诗歌是具有一定“描写”功能的。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 11:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “[dreams of the red chamber.” He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在其《汉语词典》中将小说的标题称为“红楼梦”，从而创造了该小说的标题的西译本。[他解释道小说红楼梦中一个叫妙玉的女子就像是一块令人钦佩的宝石，参见罗伯特·莫里森：《汉语词典》三部分，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷p930，此处p614，左栏。印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提及该小说，并将其标题翻译成迄今已知的西方语言。如果没有更早的发现，则意味着莫里森所创作的译本一直持续到今天几乎不变。]他选择了复数形式，这是相当合理的，因为小说中有许多梦想。似乎在27年后，复数的“梦”变成了单数的“梦”，听起来更笼统，因此也是一种合理的翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森(1782-1834)在他的《汉语词典》中将《红楼梦》称作“dreams of the red chamber”，从而创造了小说的英文译名。他把《红楼梦》这本小说中一个女性人物的名字“妙玉”中的“妙”字解释为“令人艳羡的宝石”，（参见罗伯特·莫里森《汉语词典》，澳门：东印度公司出版社，1815年，第一卷第936页，此处第614页左栏)。在印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提到并将标题翻译成西方语言。如果找不到比这还早的标题翻译，便意味着莫里森创造的翻译一直持续到今天都几乎发生没有改变。“梦”这个词的译文他选择了复数“dreams”，这是相当合理的，因为在小说中有许多梦。27年后，复数的“梦”（dreams)变成了单数的“梦”(dream)，这听起来有点笼统，但也是一个合理的翻译。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
''Red Chamber Dreams'' is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “''Dreams of the Red Chamber''” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
<br />
在所有的翻译中，“ Red Chamber Dreams”是到目前为止英语以及所有西方语言中最常见的翻译。<br />
<br />
1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，出于语言学目的对中国的看法：包含对中国年历，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的描写，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门语言：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐“红楼梦”和小说《好秋传》作为初学者的读物。 到1719年，红楼梦的翻译大部分是英语，部分是葡萄牙语。在1761年以后全部用英语翻译。两种都是口语化的。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:14, 23 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Morrison claims that ''Dream'' was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the ''Dreams'' is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
<br />
马礼逊称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，因为书的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色有时候还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，也是作者有意而为之，这也是此作品之后享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年仍有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 11:07, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
马礼逊认为，《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，《红楼梦》的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色在某些场合甚至还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，这是作者有意而为之，也是《红楼梦》在后来享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年时，仍有人认为《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
马礼逊声称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。这一说法是不正确的，因为作者曹雪芹来自南方，小说中很多人说话都有南京方言的色彩。事实上，方言和社会用语的巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。马礼逊的错误持续了很长一段时间。[即使是在1995年，还有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。]--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this （导言）reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p.76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited Dec 5, 2010.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel.<br />
巴罗在1819年6月4日的季刊上提到了书名“[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams”。他在一篇评论中这样写道：这是我自己的发现。迄今还未被20世纪的红学讨论过，第一次发表是在2010年10月。1816年和1817年在中国内陆的旅行，以及往返于那个国家的航行;书中记载了阿默斯特公爵驻北京法院的大使馆最有趣的事情，以及对它访问过的国家的观察(克拉克阿裨尔，伦敦，1818，于威廉吉福德，季刊21:41,1819年1月，67-91页，79-80页）这个版本仅仅在1819年6月4日发行了13000本。作者在此遵循了对作者巴罗任务的论证，原因如下:“绅士杂志(1844年3月)，246-47。这篇文章的作者提到了#415和#438(包括一个特定的引用)，它们都是关于同一个主题的，都是巴罗写的。还有关于杀婴的讨论(第76页)和巴罗在第422页审查过的莱佛士对爪哇的描述。在他的Q[uarterly] R[eview]文章中，巴罗的标志性做法是引用他自己的作品，参见“季刊评论档案”，http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html，上一次访问是在2010年12月5日。克拉克·阿贝尔(Clarke Abel)关于中国之旅的报道。[克拉克·阿贝尔，1816年和1817年在中国内陆的旅行，以及往返于那个国家的航行;书中记载了阿默斯特公爵驻北京法院的大使馆最有趣的事情，以及对它访问过的国家的观察，1818年伦敦F.L.S.。他以一段关于中国人千篇一律的外表和一成不变的本质的论述打断了他的评论，这与当时赫尔德和黑格尔对中国的抨击一致。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 06:12, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream.<br />
对于当代欧洲人来说，中国人看起来异常的统一，衣着和外表都相当简单。他们不会屈从于暴政时尚;他们的文化是静止的。为了娱乐“大不列颠的美女和美人”，巴罗（Barrow）引用了杰·戴维斯《翻译的梦》第三章，对服装的描述和对两个人物的剖析，来衬托这个总体印象。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 06:26, 22 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
对于当代欧洲人，中国人的穿着和外表显得异常统一和朴素。 他们不会服从时尚的暴政。 他们的文化是静态的。 为了娱乐“大不列颠的风向标”，巴罗引用了戴维斯红楼梦翻译第3章中对两个人物王熙凤和贾宝玉的服装和人物性格剖析的描述。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:25, 23 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
<br />
Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
<br />
实际上，这些描述中给出的图形比较对于当时的欧洲人来说简直是陌生的，因为它们显然不符合欧洲人自己的美感。<br />
<br />
甚至在1842年，居茨拉夫（Gützlaff）都批评说：“作者[对]他无法对这个主题伸张正义，提出了许多抗议，这确实是书中唯一的道理。以说北方法院方言的方式，可以有利地细读这部作品” [“在中国小说中，这部作品绝对享有很高的地位。在多次抗议他无法公正对待这个主题之后，这确实是本书中唯一的真相[...]总结了这个乏味的故事，在表达我们对表演文学价值的看法后，我们可以说这种风格没有任何艺术意义，实际上是北部省份上层阶级的口头语言。有些词的用法与普通著作有所不同，而另一些词的用法则是为了表达省级声音。但是，读完一卷书后，这种感觉很容易理解，并且无论谁希望熟悉北部法院方言的表达方式，都可以从中受益。同上，p。273.]<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:49, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below – <br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
<br />
“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed.<br />
<br />
1867年，即第一本中文印刷版出版78年之后，我们对梅辉立的两页进行了首次真正的深入回顾：[梅辉立，在：中日释疑（1867年12月31日）,第167-168页，此处第167页。梅辉立曾担任英国使馆驻北京的中国秘书。他还给出了一些翻译中的简要摘录：<br />
“天堂之上或地狱之下都很广阔–<br />
叹息可能会限制过去的激情<br />
为无知的青年，不幸的少女而悲伤！<br />
最后，爱的誓言不是经常被兑现的！ ”（第167页）[…]<br />
不会脾气柔和，方式温和，<br />
公平为最公平…（第168页）<br />
[…]<br />
不常发光<br />
你的渴望也是徒劳的！ ” (第168页)].]<br />
<br />
“如果公然宣称对任一中国作品充满热情的感觉是合法的，那么要对红楼梦或‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’的无端指摘表示真正的钦佩是不可能的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 13:37, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors.<br />
<br />
<br />
在英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的作品经常被与前几代令人厌倦和不熟练的作品相比较，就如同红楼梦被与其他中国作家的小说作品作比较一样。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:22, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的作品经常被拿来和早期一些令人厌倦和不熟练的作品作比较，同样地，人们也经常把《红楼梦》与其他中国作家的小说作比较。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:12, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance;<br />
<br />
复杂多变的人物性格，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，凡此种种，作者都以具有技巧和才识的笔触描绘出来，这事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者那具有技巧和才识的笔触下的这些，性格复杂多变的人物，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end.<br />
<br />
同时，就像在自然界的生存戏剧中一样，风暴和阳光的反射紧密地交织在一起，喜剧的轻快线与故事的黑暗主线并排而行，故事的黑暗主线以悲伤的预兆开始，以泪洗面而终。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
同时，正如自然存在本身就具有戏剧性，风暴与阳光之间的映射紧密纠缠，明亮的喜剧线与黑暗的故事主线并肩而行，展开故事，它以悲伤的预兆开头，并最终导向令人垂泪的结局。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture.<br />
<br />
梅尔读了近80十年的书评，在阅读过程中，他能读懂越来越多的章节，所以他民族中心主义的观点逐渐变化，最后变成了科学的观点。他1867年的书评呈现了辩证的态度，他不仅承认中国小说是世界小说的一部分，甚至对中国小说有没有可能超越其本国文化取得的成就持开放态度。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s.<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多多元化的中文研究，在美国大学中扮演海外华人的角色，尤其是在1930年代通过Franz Kuhn进行的进一步翻译以及 1950年代的德国中国协会.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 03:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多样化中国研究中心，随着海外华人在美国大学中角色的改变，随着二十世纪三十年代翻译进一步发展，这其中弗兰克·库恩（Frank kuhn)是典型代表，随着二十世纪五十年代德国中国协会的建立，这个过程完满结束了。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:29, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China.<br />
<br />
<br />
在其60年的历史中，德国中国协会(旁边是正在发展的大学中国研究中心，旁边是其他与中国打交道的组织，如友好协会和孔子学院)以多样性和宽容帮助克服偏见和文化相对主义。这尤其具有挑战性，因为两国文化和语言相当遥远，而德国媒体和互联网社区往往会抨击中国。<br />
在过去的20年里,德国的中国协会在优秀的主席格雷戈尔保罗领导下建立,通过敏锐和精确的分析中国和西方的一个共同的逻辑，还有普世价值,包括值得一起追求的人权，他建立起了这个协会的声誉。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before. Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like “A Harvard Literary History of Modern China”.<br />
<br />
他的演讲娱乐性强，内容翔实，善用修辞，引经据典。例如：分歧往往源于意见不和，而非事情性质不一致，这从他和妻子的争吵中可以看出，他们都记得前一天发生的事情。保罗是一名逻辑学家和普遍主义者，他提升了德国的国际声誉，德国被誉为“诗人和思想家的国度”。<br />
<br />
如今，中国与西方学者在国际会议、研究项目或诸如“现代中国的哈佛文学史”之类的国际图书项目上的合作，是对中国更加公正的体现，也是合作达到高潮的体现。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume ''History of Chinese Literature'' published in Bonn.<br />
<br />
总体上来说，欧洲人（以及后期的美国人）对中国的研究做出了贡献。研究很大程度上受到了理想主义者（耶稣会士和德国启蒙哲学家）以及抨击中国者（黑格尔和德国教皇）的影响。中国的文学作品花费了100年的时间才能得到像欧洲文学那样的认可。但是如今，中国文学和文化已经受到诺贝尔奖的认可，孔子学院也成功地在国外传播弘扬中国文化。<br />
<br />
然而，我们不能高估欧洲对中国文学的贡献。仍有很多民族中心主义的例子，甚至有宗教鼓励性的读物混入中国文学当中。其中一个例子便是在波恩出版的《十卷中国文学史》。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 03:12, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god. This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让我们再次想起耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，尽管中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、演讲和绘画，把美好愿景和文献记载世代相传，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 13:20, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让人联想到耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，而这个时候中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、言论和绘画，从美好愿景到记载事件、家族等，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:25, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”. <br />
<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
这位德国汉学家重新翻译了源于孔子的《论语》，并用“神”一词翻译了50多个“天堂”或“恶魔/鬼魂”的事件。研究孔子的专家也引用了一些孔子说的鬼神等超自然的问题。而且他还分析到孔子充其量对鬼神的信仰可能不太感兴趣，甚至持有消极的态度，但他对其为人民带来的社会稳定与和平持积极态度。这提醒了我们一个事实，那就是我们要确保民族中心主义在今天仍然存在，并且科学是一个需要警惕和谨慎的领域。公开反对它需要勇气。<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
“We were wrong” – Coming to terms <br />
with failed master narratives of Chinese Studies<br />
“我们错了”——汉学应对主流叙事传统<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吴漠汀<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
We, the international scholars of Chinese Studies, apologize for two main misinterpretations of China. 1. The master narrative of Jesuits and others who tried to proof the Western Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. As a tool, they used a distortion of the Chinese texts by manipulated translation. <br />
<br />
我们是中国研究的国际学者，对中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人在古代中国文本中试图证明西方基督教之神的主要叙事。作为一种工具，他们通过操纵翻译来歪曲中文文本。<br />
<br />
“我们错了”--关于汉学错误的主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为研究汉学的国际学者，为我们对于中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人的主流叙事中试图证明在古代中国作品中存在西方基督教之神。他们通过操纵翻译这一工具来歪曲中国作品。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:07, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“我们错了”---学会接受错误的汉学主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为汉学的海外学者，要向中国道歉，因为我们在两个方面误读了中国。1. 耶稣会教士和其他人的主流叙事试图证明古代中国作品存在西方的基督教上帝。他们通过操纵翻译来歪解中国作品。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:36, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
2. The master narrative of the stagnation of China, sometimes claimed to be inherent and systemic, often reasoned with Confucianism. This narrative was a dogma for 150 years between 1830 and 1980. The disruptive economic development since 1978 has proven this narrative wrong, Confucianism is seen as one reason for the economic miracle. <br />
<br />
2.关于中国停滞的主要叙述，有时被称为固有的和系统性的，常常用儒家思想来推理。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙事错误，儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的一个原因。<br />
<br />
常以儒家思想为依据的中国停滞论有时被认为是固有的和系统性的。在1830-1980年这150年间，这种说法如同教条主义一般。直到1978年中国经济飞速发展才证明这种说话是错误的，儒家思想也被视为中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:49, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.中国停滞的主要叙述有时是内在的、系统的，通常由儒家思想所论证。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙述是错误的，而儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:31, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于中国发展停滞不前的大体说法有时被认为是固定的、系统的，且往往以儒家思想为依据。在1830-1980年这150年里，这种说法像教条一样根植人心。直到1978年以后，中国经济的腾飞推翻了这一说法，儒家思想也被视为是中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 03:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
3. The master narrative of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution as a successful Communist reform. During the 1970s, Western sinologists abandoned basic principles of neutrality, distance and fact-seeking and, based on propaganda, enthusiastically celebrated the Cultural Revolution and became dedicated followers of Mao Zedong, holding up the Little Red Book.<br />
<br />
无产阶级文化大革命的主要叙事是成功的共产主义改革。在20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立，距离和事实寻求的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热烈地庆祝文化大革命，成为毛泽东的忠实粉丝，举起小红皮书。相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
主述将无产阶级文化大革命（文革）描述为共产党的一场成功改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热衷于庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:40, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在主流叙事中，无产阶级文化大革命是一场成功的共产主义改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传层面上热烈庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:16, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
The readiness to believe in the Chinese propaganda was partly motivated by the wish to idealize China into a model which could show the way for a reform of Western societies.<br />
<br />
相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
人们愿意信任中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，而这种典范可以为西方社会改革指明道路。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:49, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们愿意相信中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，可以为西方社会改革指明道路。 --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
Apology, errors, mistakes, manipulation, ethnocentrism, eurocentrism, master narratives, Chinese Studies, sinology, coming to terms with the past<br />
<br />
道歉，错误，错误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
道歉，错误，失误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 11:55, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
1. God in China上帝在中国<br />
<br />
Human beings develop ancestor worship, complemented by natural religions. The natural religions established a layer of shamans who interpreted the will of the natural gods. <br />
<br />
人类发展祖先崇拜，辅以自然宗教。自然宗教建立了一套解释自然神灵意志的法则。<br />
<br />
人类开创了祖先崇拜的先例，并辅以自然宗教。自然宗教组建了一支能解释自然神灵意志的萨满法师队伍。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:38, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
In India, the layer of priests of the Vedan religion alienated from the people, because the religious texts of Vedan religion brought a conservating effect to language, texts were canonized and finally not understood by ordinary people any more. <br />
<br />
在印度，Vedan宗教的神职人员与人民疏远，因为Vedan宗教的宗教文本对语言产生了保护作用，文本被册封，最后不再为普通人所理解。<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Finally, only the Vedan priests could understand the Vedan texts any more. This was the start of the so-called “anti-religious” start of Buddishm.<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是Buddishm所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。<br />
<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:50, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源由此开始。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Due to the alienation of people and the religious texts and its priests, Buddha was able to establish Buddhism. He claimed that every individual was able to find his or her own way to self-perception and spiritual liberation (nirvana). <br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀能够建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式（涅槃）。<br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本和祭司关系并不紧密，佛陀才能建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
由于人们和宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。他宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们和宗教由于文本及其祭司发生了异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。佛陀宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:59, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Although Buddha did not abandon priests, he established the new tradition that masters would have their disciples and these could overcome their masters. Also, Buddha destroyed the perfectionism of the almighty god by claiming that the life of imperfect men simply was much more interesting. <br />
<br />
虽然佛陀没有放弃传教者，但他建立了新的传统，即主人会有他们的门徒，这些人可以推翻他们的主人。此外，佛陀通过声称不完美男人的生活更加有趣，摧毁了全能神的完美主义。<br />
<br />
尽管佛陀没有放弃祭司，但他创建了新传统，即大师们会收弟子，弟子们也能青出于蓝而胜于蓝。并且，佛陀摧毁了全能神的完美主义，他认为不完美的人的人生会更精彩。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:53, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
佛陀尽管没有放弃祭司，但是他创立了新传统，即大师们会收弟子，弟子们可以青出于蓝而胜于蓝。此外，佛陀认为不完美之人的人生更加精彩，从而摧毁了全能神的完美主义。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 10:26, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
In China, ancestor worship has kept its dominant role until today. Although there was the age of shamans, since several millenia every family clan had its own tradition of ancestor worship. It was believed that the ancestors in heaven watched over and influenced the lives of their descendants on earth. <br />
<br />
在中国，从古至今祖先崇拜一直保持其主导地位。虽然有巫师的时代，但自几千年以来，每个家族宗族都有自己的祖先崇拜传统。人们相信，天上的祖先会注视着并影响他们的后代在地球上的生活。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 01:19, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在中国，从古至今祖先崇拜一直占据其主导地位。尽管有过巫师的时代，但是几千年来，每个家族都有其自己的祖先崇拜传统。人们相信，天上的祖先会注视并影响着其后代在地球上的生活。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:58, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
So the most important unit were family clans. Even rulers used fire cracks and characters inscribed in turtle shells or cattle bones to communicate with the ancestors and to predict the future. <br />
<br />
所以最重要的单位是家族。甚至统治者也使用火龟纹和龟壳或牛骨上的字符来与祖先交流并预测未来。<br />
<br />
因此最核心的单位是家族。统治者甚至通过把火裂纹和符号刻在龟壳和牛骨上的方式和祖先进行交流和预测未来。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，最重要的单位是宗族。甚至统治者也会将火裂纹和字符刻在龟壳或牛骨上，用来与祖先交流并预测未来。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 01:25, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
However, when the dynasty changed and a new ethnic group took over, they could not claim the ancestors to be their relatives any more, so the shangdi concept was replaced by heaven (tian) and related understandings like “son of heaven”, “mandate of heaven” etc., supllying them with legitimization of power. <br />
<br />
然而，当王朝改变并且一个新的族群接管时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚，所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和相关的理解所取代，如“天堂之子”，“任务”天国等等，用权力合法化来贬低他们。<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，当王朝更迭并且被一个新的族群所接替时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚。所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和其相关的理解所取代，如“天之子”“天之使命”等等，用权力合法化来作为补充。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Although there were mythical divine creatures, the understanding of gods was not developed as distinct and authoritative as in Europe and Egypt. Egypt and Europe both further developed from multi theism to mono theism.<br />
<br />
虽然有神话般的神圣生物，但对神的理解并没有像欧洲和埃及那样发展出独特和权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论到单一神论进一步发展。<br />
<br />
虽然有神话中的神创物，但对神的理解并没有像在欧洲和埃及那样发展得独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论进一步发展到一神论。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
尽管存在神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:46, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然有神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Theism established a layer of priests, occupying the role of mediators between god and men. Since every uncontrolled authority abuses its power, these mediators gained earthly wealth and took advantage of their control over people by abuse of their work force and even sexual abuse. <br />
<br />
有神论建立了一套祭祀法则，成为了神与人之间调解者的角色。由于每个不受控制的权威都滥用权力，这些调解人获得了人间的财富，并利用他们对工作人员的滥用甚至性虐待来控制他们。<br />
有神论确立了一些神职人员来充当上帝和人民之间的调停者。无限制的权力会导致权力的滥用，因此这些调停者不仅获得了大量的财富，还利用自己对人民的控制来压榨他们的劳动力甚至是通过性虐待来达到此目的。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 14:08, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
In Europe, the power was divided among the rulers and the church, represented by the pope, the cardinals, the bishops and the priests. <br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力在统治者和教会之间分配，由教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父代表。<br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力被统治者和以教皇、红衣主教、主教和神父为代表的教会所控制，并且被分享、分配。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，由统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会掌控分配权力。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会分配权力。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 04:02, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Since religion in general claims to be valid for all of menkind, when new territories were discovered in East Asia and Africa, the missionaries tried to enlarge the territorium under their control by forcing locals to accept European religions and societal development models like modernization and economical development. <br />
因为宗教通常声称对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士试图通过迫使当地人接受欧洲宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大他们控制下的领土。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:34, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于宗教一般主张对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士会试图通过强迫当地人接受欧洲的宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大自己控制的领土。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
After the first missionaries arrived in China and saw that the exchange was positive for both sides, they also developed a motivation to keep the missionaries alive, which was a second motivation for them. <br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国，并看到双方的交流是积极的之后，他们也发展了一种让传教士活动的动力，这是他们的第二个动机。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国后，并看到这种交流对双方来说都是积极的，他们也就产生了另一个动力，让传教士们积极活动。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:11, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
第一批传教士抵达中国并看到双方的交流是积极的以后,他们又发展了一种保持传教士活力的动力，这是他们发展的第二个。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Since the Christian religion is a religion revealed in divine texts, the missionaries had a strong motivation to find evidence in the classical Chinese texts that the Christian god also existed there. So among the first texts, they selected, translated and sorted were the canonized texts. A good example is the Daodejing which they translated in a distorted way, allowing them to proof the existence of the Christian god in China.<br />
<br />
由于基督教是一种神圣文本中所揭示的宗教，传教士有强烈的动机在中国古典文本中找到证据，证明基督教的神也存在于那里。 因此，在第一批文本中，他们选择、翻译和排序的是册封文本。一个很好的例子就是《道德经》，他们以扭曲的方式翻译，使他们能够证明中国基督教神的存在。<br />
<br />
由于基督教起源于神圣文本，所以传教士很想在中国古典作品中找到基督教的神亦存在的证据。因此，他们最初选择、翻译、排序的文章都是经典作品。这些传教士歪曲事实，翻译《道德经》是一个很好的证明。其目的是证明中国存在基督教的神。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:35, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
This was the first major mistake, the attitude of Europeans to find evidence of their European god in Chinese roots. This attidtude lead to translation practises abandoning the basic rules of the profession: <br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人在中国人根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种原因导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：<br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人想寻找证据，证明自己的欧洲神明存在于中国人根源之中的这种态度。这种态度导致其在翻译实践中放弃专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:14, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人试图在中国根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种态度导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:24, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Terms, concepts and ideas sounding familiar were forcibly changed into the original European meaning. However, the published translations did only show a slight influence of this practise, the main translations, e.g. of the Daodejing first were not published, but discussed internally. <br />
<br />
熟悉的术语、概念和想法被强制改变，具有原欧洲意义。但是，已发表的翻译并没有受太大影响，主要翻译，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
为人熟知的术语、概念和想法被强制改变为原欧洲意义。然而，已发表的翻译作品仅受到了轻微影响。但主要的翻译作品，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为人所熟知的术语、概念和思想，被迫改为原来的欧洲含义。然而，已发表的翻译只是受到了这种做法的轻微影响，但主要的翻译作品，如《道德经》最初没有出版，而是进行内部讨论。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
The outcome of the discussion was that the deviations in the translations would have to go too far and ultimately that there was no proof of the Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. <br />
<br />
讨论的结果是，翻译中的偏差必须走得太远，最终在中国古代文本中没有基督教之神的证据。<br />
<br />
讨论的结果是，译本的偏差会太大，最终导致在古代中国文本中没有基督教上帝存在的证据。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
讨论的结果是译本可能会偏差过大，最终导致在中国古籍中没有基督教存在的依据了。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:50, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, since then several missionaries, priests (Richard Wilhelm) and sinologists (Wolfgang Kubin) still tend to translate the Chinese concept of “heaven” into concepts familiar to Europeans like “god”. <br />
<br />
<br />
尽管如此，从那时起，几位传教士，牧师（理查德威廉）和汉学家（顾彬）仍然倾向于将中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，如“上帝”。<br />
<br />
尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师（如理查德·威廉）和汉学家（如沃尔夫冈·库宾）还是倾向于把中国的“天”译作欧洲人所熟悉的概念，如“上帝”--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
<br />
尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师(理查德·威廉)和汉学家(沃尔夫冈·库宾)仍然倾向于把中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，比如“上帝”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:26, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
This is wrong and we as sinologists, apologize to the Chinese citizens for this eurocentric approach. We hope to overcome this historical mistake by cooperation with our Chinese colleagues.<br />
<br />
这是错误的，我们作为汉学家，为这种以欧洲为中心的方法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作修正这一历史错误。<br />
<br />
这是错误的，并且作为汉学家，我们为这种以欧洲为中心的做法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作来纠正这一历史错误。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
这种以欧洲为中心的做法是不对的。作为汉学家，我们为此向中国公民道歉，希望能够和中国汉学家合作来纠正这个历史错误。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
All institutionalization develops inertia, the Chinese society was very instituionalized, therefore the Christianization in general failed. However, he secondary aims of the missions, to bring the European understanding of societal development (development of economy, health, education bringing about progress and modernization) were a success.<br />
<br />
所有制度化都发展了惯性，中国社会非常机构化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。 然而，他的使命的次要目标，使欧洲对社会发展的理解（经济、健康、教育带来进步和现代化）的成功是成功的。<br />
<br />
<br />
一切制度化都滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标是，使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），这个目标成功了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:42, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
<br />
一切制度化滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标：使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），成功了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
The missionaries translated European books of knowledge into Chinese and therefore practically performed a knowledge transfer. Also the learning of foreign languages enhanced.<br />
<br />
传教士将欧洲知识书籍翻译成中文，实际上不仅传递了知识，也提高了他们外语学习的能力。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
传教士将欧洲的知识书籍译成了中文，从而将知识的传递落到了实处。人们的外语学习能力也得到了提高。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:53, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
During history, the authoritarian rule was replaced by democracies. In China, this was the case with the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. During history, the power of the church was also restrained with protestant reformism.<br />
<br />
在历史上，专制统治被民主取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改良主义的制约。<br />
<br />
在历史上，专制统治被民主制所取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，新教改革派也限制了教会的权力。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 04:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在历史上，独裁统治被民主政体所取代。而在中国，中华民国于1912年成立就是这样的事件。历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改革主义的制约。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:27, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Religions are more or less tolerant regarding people believing in different religions or regarding atheists. Islam in average is less tolerant the Christianity. <br />
<br />
宗教对于相信不同宗教或无神论者的人或多或少都是宽容的。平均而言，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。<br />
<br />
各大宗教对于有别的宗教信仰的人或无神论者或多或少持宽松态度。一般而言，伊斯兰教对基督教徒的宽松度较低。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 05:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
任何宗教对于信仰不同宗教的人或无神论者都有着或多或少的宽容。一般来说，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Since two millenia, Europe has been dominated by Christianity and China mostly by ancestor worship, with a huge tolerance towards Buddhism, Daoism and other forms of religious practises. <br />
<br />
自两千年以来，欧洲一直由基督教和中国主导，主要是祖先崇拜，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教活动有着巨大的容忍。<br />
<br />
自从两千年以来，欧洲一直以基督教为主，中国大多以崇拜祖先为主，对佛教，道教和其他形式的宗教活动具有极大的容忍度。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自两千年以来，欧洲一直为基督教所主导，而中国主要为祖先崇拜所主导，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教信仰有着极大的宽容。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
2. Stagnant China停滞的中国<br />
<br />
Times when international China watchers (scholars, philosophers) and China experts (merchants, missionaries, members of delegations, scholars) idealized China (Chinoiserie) and when they demonized her (stagnation, Yellow peril) followed each other. <br />
<br />
国际中国观察家（学者、哲学家）和中国专家（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）理想化中国（中国风）以及妖魔化她（停滞、黄祸）的时代相互依存。<br />
<br />
国际上中国的关注者（学者、哲学家）和对中国颇为了解的人（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）先是把中国理想化（Chinoiserie），接着又把中国妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:00, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国际上中国的观察者们（学者、哲学家）和中国通（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）把中国理想化(中国风）、妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）的时期是互相交汇的。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Western Sinology has long declared the "stagnation" in China as being “without an alternative” and as “being caused by Confucianism”. However, China showed a disruptive economical development since 1978, which proves this narrative wrong. Now also the Chinese "economic miracle" is explained by the Western sinologists with Confucianism. <br />
<br />
西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“没有其他选择”和“由儒学引起的”。 然而，自1978年以来，中国显示出飞速的经济发展，证明这种说法是错误的。 现在中国的“经济奇迹”也被西方汉学家用儒学解释了。<br />
<br />
西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“无法避免的”，“由儒学造成的”。然而，从1978年来，中国的经济出现了颠覆性的发展，证明这种说法是错误的。现在，西方汉学家又用儒学去解释中国的“经济奇迹”。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:00, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
Now is the time for Western Sinology to admit its historical mistake and to overcome the eurocentric and racist dogma of “stagnation” by diversification. The exchange with Chinese colleagues like here at the congress offers a good opportunity to do so.<br />
<br />
现在是西方汉学承认其历史错误、克服多元化“停滞”的欧洲中心和种族主义教条的时候了。在这里与大会上的中国同事交流提供了一个很好的机会。<br />
<br />
<br />
现在，西方汉学应当承认自己的历史错误，并通过多样化来克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条。本次大会上与中国同事的交流为此提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 04:53, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
现在是西方汉学承认历史错误，通过多元化克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条的时候了。本次大会上与中国同事的交流提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
With the overall turn from admiring China to demonizing China, also Hegel started to judge on China as a “stagnant” empire. <br />
<br />
随着从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的整体转变，黑格尔也开始判断中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。<br />
<br />
从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国，黑格尔也开始认为中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
随着黑格尔从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的全面转变，他也开始认为中国是一个“停滞”的帝国。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 04:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Although he found evidence that Confucius had invented the Golden Rule, he described China as the lowest stage of a stairways to the world Geist# with Berlin at the top. His condemnation of China was taken over by Marx who condemned China too. <br />
<br />
尽管他发现了孔子发明黄金法则的证据，但他将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居榜首。他对中国的谴责也被谴责中国的马克思所接管。<br />
<br />
尽管他发现了黄金法则由孔子发明，但他仍将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居阶梯之首。他对中国的谴责也由谴责中国的马克思所接替。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 06:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管他发现了黄金法则是由孔子发明的证据，他仍将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居该阶梯之首。他对中国的谴责为同样谴责中国的马克思所接管。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 07:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
There were several narratives establishing a Great Divergence or arguing for little divergences during the early stage of globalization. However, new rediscoveries of ancient Chinese translations of Western books of knowledge and new statistics of sugar consumption (which was for the most time higher in China than in Europe) question these narratives today.<br />
<br />
在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了一种大分歧或争论很少的分歧。 然而，中国古代西方知识翻译的新发现以及食糖消费的新统计数据（这在中国的时间比欧洲最高）在今天质疑这些叙述。<br />
<br />
有几种说法造成了巨大的分歧，或主张在全球化的早期阶段几乎没有分歧。然而，对西方知识书籍和糖消费新统计数据 (中国的糖消费量比欧洲高得多) 的中国古代翻译的新发现质疑了今天的这些说法。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了极大的分歧，或争论较小的分歧。 然而，如今，有关西方叙事的古汉语翻译的新发现和食糖消费的新统计数据（在中国多数时候高于欧洲）都质疑这些叙述。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:44, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
'''3. Western Sinologists as Red Guard作为红卫兵的西方汉学家'''<br />
<br />
Whenever science and scholarship serves an ideology or a religion, it gives up its objectivity and it betrays the fundamental principles of science and scholarship, e.g. the principle that you conduct research independantly without any predestined results and that you accept the results whatever they are.<br />
<br />
每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 你独立进行研究而没有任何预定结果的原则，你接受的结果无论它们是什么。<br />
<br />
每当科学和学术服务于一种意识形态或宗教时，它就会失去其客观性，并会违背科学和学术的基本原则，例如这一项原则：当你独立地进行一项没有任何注定结果的研究时，你就得接受任何研究结果。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 在你独立进行研究时，你可能会想要一个预定好的结果。你可能不太愿意接受不想要的答案。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Sinologists and scholars of Chinese Studies are scholars who deal with the subject of China. To keep the distance, it is good that they are able to freely travel to and out of China in order to be able to change perspectives and to keep the distance.<br />
<br />
中国研究的汉学家和学者是处理中国主题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地进出中国以便能够改变视角并保持距离。<br />
<br />
汉学家和中国研究学者都是研究中国主题的学者。为了区分不同，他们能够自由进出中国，以便能够改变视角去研究不同方面，这是非常好的方法。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉学家和中国研究学者是研究中国问题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地往返于中国，以便能够改变视角，保持距离，这是很好的。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
There was a time at the end of the 1960s, when the Western capitalism and establishment was challenged, initi-ated by images from the Vietnam war, dismantling the cruelty of war, where American soldiers used unfair tech-niques like chemical weapons against civilians in Vietnam. The photo of the naked children, scared to death from the napalm air strikes and running away in panic, changed the attitude of the people in the USA and in Europe against the institutionalized form of capitalism. Suddenly, the people, who were assured to be the “good ones” asked instead if they were the “bad ones” and had to change their systems towards peaceful coexistence. <br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义的形成和建立受到挑战，受到越南战争的影响。资本主义使战争看上去不那么残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。看到裸体儿童的照片，看到他们在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分的模样，惊慌而逃的身影，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义的态度。 突然之间，那些发誓要成为“好人”的人们反而会质疑自己是否是“坏蛋”，并且不得不改变他们自己的方式以实现和平共处。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义和建立受到越南战争的影响，摧毁了战争的残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。 裸体儿童的照片，在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分，在恐慌中逃跑，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义形式的态度。 突然之间，那些被保证成为“好人”的人们反而要求他们是“坏人”，并且不得不改变他们的制度以实现和平共处。<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Western sinologist in the whole world were too ready to believe the propaganda of a successful “Great Proletari-an Cultural Revolution”. In 1961 Defense Minister Lin Biao instructed the army journal ''People’s Liberation Army Daily'' to print one saying of Mao each day. Sorted thematically, the first collection of these sayings was published in 1964. The little red book with sayings by Mao Zedong was printed more than 740 million times in China to supply every citizen with a copy. During its peak of popularity 1966-1971, it was the most printed book, it was printed in more than 30 languages more than a billion times. <br />
<br />
全世界的西方汉学家都准备好相信成功的“无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传。 1961年，国防部长林彪指示军民报“人民解放军报”每天打印一篇毛泽东的语录。 按主题排序，这些说法的第一个集合于1964年出版。毛泽东的红宝书在中国印刷了7.4亿多次，为每个公民提供了一份副本。 在1966年至1971年的人气高峰期间，它是印刷最多的书，以超过30种语言印刷超过十亿次。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全世界的西方汉学家都不敢相信“伟大的无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传竟如此成功。1961年，国防部长林彪指示军队日报《人民解放军日报》每天刊登一篇毛泽东语录。按主题分类，这些语录的第一本合集于1964年出版。《毛泽东语录红皮书》在中国印刷了7.4亿多册，几乎人手一本。在1966至1971年间，该书的印刷量达到顶峰，被翻译成30多种语言，印刷超过10亿次。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
整个世界的西方汉学家都太相信“伟大的无产阶级-文化革命”的宣传了。1961 年，国防部长林彪指示“人民解放军日报”每天刊登一篇关于毛泽东的文章。按主题分类，这些谚语的第一次收集是在 1964 年出版的。毛泽东写的红色小本子在中国印刷了 7.4亿 多次，为每个公民提供了一本。在 1966-1971 年的鼎盛时期，它是最受欢迎的印刷书籍，以 30 多种语言印刷了超过 10亿 次--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:58, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Jean-Luc Godard released his film “La Chinoise” in August 1967, displaying a youthful Parisian Maoist sect. This lead to a popularity of this ideology among Western experts of Chinese Studies.<br />
<br />
Jean-Luc Godard于1967年8月发行了他的电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。这导致了这种意识形态在西方中国研究专家中的流行。<br />
<br />
让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）于1967年8月发行了电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在西方中国研究专家中流行。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:31, 20 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
1967年8月，让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）发布了其电影《中国姑娘》，电影中展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在那些做中国研究的西方专家中流行开来。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Recently, Cambridge University Press published a collection of memories of how Western sinologists and young intellectuals have received and embraced Maoism in the 1960s and 1970s. <br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列关于西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代接受和信奉毛泽东思想的回忆。<br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代就已接收并信奉毛泽东思想。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:19, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子在20世纪60年代和70年代对毛泽东思想的接受和信奉情况。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:28, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
John Gray in a book review has summarized main points of the book. I mostly follow his summary here. He de-scribes how French thinkers received this film:<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：<br />
<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了这本书的要点。 我将在此列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
约翰·格雷在书评中总结了他这本书的主要观点。在这里，我主要是跟随着他的总结。他描述了法国的思想者是如何接受这部电影的：--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他讲述了法国思想家对这部电影的评价：--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 04:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg: “Mao’s language of violence had a certain rhetorical appeal.” In fact, it was his combination of rhetorical violence with sub-Hegelian dialectical logic that proved so irresistible to sections of the French intelligentsia. Eulogising Mao’s distinction between principal and secondary contradictions, Louis Althusser deployed Maoist categories as part of an extremely abstract and, indeed, largely meaningless defence of “the relative autonomy of theory”. <br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg:“毛泽东暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他的修辞暴力与亚黑格尔的辩证逻辑相结合，对法国知识分子的各个部分来说是如此难以抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分,路易·阿尔都塞将毛泽东主义者分类作为极其抽象的,实际上是对“理论相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是因为他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 路易斯·阿尔都塞颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，并将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上是对“理论的相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”实际上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:43, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Althusser’s student Alain Badiou (for many years professor of philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure) continued to defend Maoism long after the scale of its casualties had become undeniable. As recently as 2008, while commending himself for being “now one of Maoism’s few noteworthy representatives”, Badiou praised Mao’s thought as “a new politics of the negation of the negation”. From one point of view, this stance is merely contemptible – a professorial pirouette around a vast pile of corpses. But one must bear in mind the fathomless frivolity of some on the French left. Already in 1980, two former Maoist mili-tants had announced their rejection of the creed in the language of fashion: “China was in . . . Now it is out . . . we are no longer Maoists.” Against this background, Badiou’s persistence is almost heroically ab-surd. <br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生Alain Badiou（多年来在巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在其伤亡人数不可否认之后很久就继续捍卫毛派。 就在2008年，尽管称赞自己是“现在是毛派少数几个值得注意的代表之一”，但巴迪欧称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。 从一个角度来看，这种立场仅仅是可鄙的 - 围绕着一大堆尸体的教授旋转。 但是人们必须牢记法国左翼一些人的无聊轻浮。 早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子就已经宣布以时尚语言拒绝信条：“中国是在中国。。。 现在它出来了。。。 我们不再是毛泽东思想者。”在这种背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是荒谬的荒谬。<br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生阿兰·巴迪欧（多年来一直是巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在伤亡人数不可否认之后很久仍继续捍卫毛派。就在2008年，巴迪欧称自己“现在是毛泽东主义为数不多的重要代表之一”，并称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。某种程度上来说，这种姿态简直是可鄙的——围绕着一大堆尸体旋转的教授。但是，我们必须记住一些法国左翼人士不可理喻的轻浮。早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子已经用时尚的语言宣布拒绝这一信条：“中国在。现在它出来了。在这样的背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是英勇无畏的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill has documented, that Maoist influence in Italy and Yugoslavia was even wider: <br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill证明，毛派在意大利和南斯拉夫的影响甚至更为广泛：<br />
<br />
“In Italy Mao-mania was not purely a left-wing phenomenon. Some ultra-right groups quoted their Little Red Books to justify their arguments.” In 1968-73 the neo-fascist party Lotto di Popolo (“the people’s fight”) lauded Mao as an exemplary nationalist and resolute opponent of US global hegemony. <br />
<br />
“在意大利，毛派狂热不仅仅是一种左翼现象。 一些极权团体引用他们的红皮书为他们的论点辩护。“1968年-1973年，新法西斯政党Lotto di Popolo（”人民的斗争“）称赞毛泽东是模范民族主义者和美国全球霸权的坚决反对者。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:13, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In a footnote he observes <br />
在他的脚注中，他注意到：<br />
<br />
“Nazi-Maoist movement in Italy included many other figures and groups” besides the Lotto di Popolo. <br />
<br />
除了Lotto di Popolo之外，“意大利的纳粹毛派运动包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
<br />
Gray beklagt#: “It is a pity this aspect of Mao’s influence is not explored in greater detail.” One of the reasons may be that the generation of Maoist sinologists later were the ones to document their own history, the history of sinologists, but they never came to terms with it, very much like the 1960s activists with sympathy for the German “Red Army Fraction”, who later became part of the establishment, even ministers in the government, and did not want to be reminded of their past.<br />
<br />
灰色beklagt＃：“遗憾的是，毛泽东影响力的这一方面没有得到更详细的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是后来毛派汉族的一代人要记录他们自己的历史，也就是汉学家的历史，但是 他们从来没有接受过它，非常像20世纪60年代积极分子同情德国“红军分数”，后来成为该组织的一部分，甚至是政府的部长，并且不想被提醒他们的过去。<br />
<br />
在他的脚注中，他表示，参与者除了Lotto di Popolo外，“意大利纳粹毛派运动还包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
Gray beklagt#表示：“遗憾的是，在这个层面，毛泽东的影响未得到更细致的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是，后来的毛泽东思想汉学家只记载他们自己的历史，即汉学家的历史。他们从不接受毛泽东思想，这就很像二十世纪六十年代的积极分子同情德国“红军纵队”。该纵队的人后来成为该组织的一部分，有的甚至还成了政府机关部长。这些汉学家不想回忆起自己的历史。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Gray writes in his book review: 格雷在他的书评中写道：<br />
<br />
“In a programmatic introductory essay Alexander C Cook compares the Chinese leader’s book to a “spir-itual atom bomb” and considers its global fallout. Showing how it reflects the influence of the choral sing-ing introduced into China by 19th-century Christian missionaries, Andrew F Jones provides an illuminating account of the rise of the Maoist pop song. Taking as her starting point the global distribution of the Little Red Book to over a hundred countries in the eight months between October 1966 and May 1967, Xu Lanjun examines the process of translation in the context of Maoist ideas of global revolution. Quinn Slo-bodian discusses the impact the book had in eastern and western Germany. In the concluding essay, Ban Wang considers the Little Red Book and “religion as politics” in China. Elsewhere, its influence in Tanzania, India, Peru, Albania and the former Soviet Union is discussed.”<br />
<br />
“在一篇程序化的介绍性文章中，亚历山大·库克将中国领导人的书与“精神原子弹”进行了比较，并考虑了它的全球影响。 安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了它如何反映19世纪基督教传教士引入中国的合唱歌曲的影响，为毛泽东主义流行歌曲的兴起提供了一个有启发性的说明。 在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书的全球分布为一百多个国家，在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下考察了翻译的过程。 Quinn Slobodian讨论了该书在德国东部和西部的影响。 在最后的文章中，王班并认为红宝书和中国的“宗教为政治”。在其他地方，讨论了它在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。”<br />
<br />
“在一篇纲领性的导言文章中，亚历山大·C·库克（Alexander C Cook）把这位中国领导人的书比作是一颗“精神原子弹”，并认为这对全世界都产生了辐射效应。安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了19世纪基督教传教士将合唱引入中国后所造成的影响，并生动地讲述了毛泽东主义流行歌曲是如何兴起的。在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书销往的全球一百多个国家为着手点，考察了在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下的翻译过程。奎因·斯洛博迪安（Quinn Slo-bodian）探讨了该书对德国东部和西部的影响。在这篇文章的最后，王斑研究了红宝书并将其视为中国的“宗教政治”。除了探讨对中国的影响，还讨论了在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。"--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
“In West Germany in the late 1960s, the Little Red Book “resembled simultaneously an accessory of the classical workers’ movement and a modish commodity of the educated elite”. In theatres, across from the refreshments, there were glass cases “full of pretty red Mao bibles (two Deutsche Marks each)”. As an anti-consumerist commodity, the book became “a marker of social distinction within a commercial market”.”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，红宝书”同时也是古典工人运动的一部分，也是受过教育的精英的一种时尚商品”。 在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。 作为一种反消费主义商品，这本书成为“商业市场中社会区别的标志”。”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，（毛泽东的）红宝书“是古典工人运动的读物，同时也是教育良好的精英阶层中的畅销书。”在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。作为一种反消费主义的商品，这本书成为了“商业市场中社会差异的标志”。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Condemned as distorting Mao’s ideas and exerting a “widespread and pernicious influence”, the book was withdrawn from circulation in February 1979 and a hundred million copies pulped.”<br />
“这部书被谴责为歪曲毛泽东的思想并发挥“广泛而有害的影响”，于1979年2月撤销流通，并且有数亿份纸张被废弃。”<br />
<br />
“这本书受到了人们的谴责，认为书中歪曲了毛泽东的思想，并带来“广泛而有害的影响”，因此，该书于1979年2月停止发行，数亿份书籍被废弃。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
The popularity of the Chinese system in the West was at the peak when it had the most victims.<br />
<br />
中国体制在西方的受欢迎程度因其最多的受害者而达到了峰值。<br />
<br />
当受害者人数最多时中国制度在西方的受欢迎程度达到顶峰。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Today, even in China, the Cultural Revolution is evaluated as “10 Years of Chaos”. Mao Zedong’s approach to mobilize the masses in endless revolutions turned out to be a historical failure. <br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也被评为“十年动乱”。 毛泽东在无休止的革命中动员群众的方法被证明是历史性的失败。<br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也称为“十年动乱”。毛泽东发动群众进行无休止革命的做法被证明是历史性的失败。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
However, domestic Science and Scholarship today once more receives incentives to pretend an ideological use-fulness of their research results when applying for funds to conduct research projects. However, an independant science and scholarship serves any government best, because a government needs real and true research results, not sugar coated ones.<br />
<br />
然而，今天的国内科学和奖学金再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，独立的科学和奖学金最适合任何政府，因为政府需要真实和真实的研究结果，而不是糖衣。<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内学科及奖学金再次受到鼓励，要求在申请项目研究资金时伪称其研究结果具有意识形态有用性。但由于政府需要真实准确的研究结果，而非华而不实的研究结果，一项独立的学科及奖学金对任何政府都是绝佳选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:59, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内的科学学术研究就再次要求在申请研究项目资金时，其研究结果须表现为有助于意识形态建设。然而，独立的科学与学术研究能够最大程度地服务政府，因为政府需要的是真实的研究成果，而不是让其巧加粉饰。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:32, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天国内的科学和学术再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，可以假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，真正独立的科学和学术才能够最好地服务于政府，因为政府需要真正的和真实的研究结果，而不是徒有其表的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 01:54, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Freedom is always the freedom within the limits not to restrict the freedom of others. But this historical event posed a new question: When is it time to kill a massmurderer? If communism threatens to enslave a whole population with millions of death victims – how far is it justified to intervene or not to intervene? But when it is not just a mass murderer, but a whole group of people mislead by a leader, a whole administration of a country, how can you clearly differentiate between good and evil? Reality often consists out of different levels of grey.<br />
<br />
自由永远是限制的自由，而不是限制他人的自由。但这一历史事件提出了一个新问题：什么时候杀死一名群众？ 如果共产主义威胁到全世界数百万死亡受害者的奴役 - 干预或不干预到底有多大理由？ 但是，当它不仅仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且还是一群人误导领导者，一个国家的整个政府时，你怎么能清楚地区分善恶呢？ 现实通常由不同级别的灰色组成。<br />
<br />
自由永远是在不限制他人自由的范围内的自由。但是这一历史性事件向我们提出了一个新的问题：什么时候应该杀死一个杀人凶手？如果共产主义威胁要奴役数以百万计的死亡受害者，那么进行干预或不进行干预的合理性有多大差别？但是，当它不仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且是一群人被一个领导人，一个国家的整个政府误导时，该如何清楚地区分善与恶？现实通常是由不同层次的灰色组成的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心<br />
<br />
Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies at Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
揭牌仪式<br />
<br />
Launch Ceremony<br />
<br />
2020年9月14日<br />
<br />
September 14, 2020<br />
<br />
I congratulate the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies 洪堡跨学科研究中心 for its opening at Hunan Normal University and especially my German colleague and Humboldt expert Professor Ottmar Ette奥特玛·埃特教授 for his dedication to realize the Center. Ette is one of the leading experts about Humboldt, in 2014-2017 he was responsible for the part “Genealogy, Chronology, Epistemology” of the BMBF research project about Humboldt in the United States.<br />
<br />
祝贺湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心成立，尤其感谢我的德国同事、洪堡专家奥特玛·埃特教授为中心的建成所做的贡献。埃特教授是研究洪堡的主要专家之一，2014-2017年，他负责美国BMBF关于洪堡研究项目中“系谱、年代学、认识论”的部分。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
The Center has the best starting conditions: It is backed by the University Potsdam and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities 柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院, which spon-sors a 18 year long research project until 2033 “Science on the Move” about Humboldt, lead by Prof. Ette.<br />
<br />
该中心拥有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持的，该基金会资助了一项由埃特（Ette）教授领导，历时18年，一直进行到2033年，即关于洪堡“移动中的科学”的研究。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:54, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院提供支持，该基金会赞助了直到2033年一项长达18年的研究项目，即“洪堡运动科学”，由埃特教授领导。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具备最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持。直到2033年，该基金会一直赞助这一历时18年的研究项目，即埃特教授领导的“洪堡运动科学”研究。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
The Center could not have found a better Chinese partner: This new Center is opened at a Hum-boldian University, with a long tradition in transdisciplinary research and teaching, with chancel-lor Professor Jiang Hongxin 湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授, who is not only an internation-ally renowned scholar in English literature, but also the driving factor behind the internationaliza-tion and opening up of Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
洪堡跨学科交流中心找到了最佳的中国合作伙伴——湖南师范大学。该中心设立在洪堡大学，洪堡大学在跨学科研究和教学领域有着悠久的历史。湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授不仅是国际知名的英语文学学者，也是湖南师范大学国际化、对外开放的带头人。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
The success of Hunan Normal University is displayed in the rising position in the university rank-ings, in the number of study programs ranking top nationwide, in the growing community of in-ternational experts working at Hunan Normal University, in international cooperations, joint school projects etc. Also the staff working at the Center are ideally chosen, Ren Haiyan 中心副主任任海燕博士, who is familiar with English literature of the 18th century, Fan Ni, who is currently building up the German Department as well as Li Yaqin.<br />
湖南师范大学的成功体现在:在高校排名中不断上升，学习交流项目数量居全国前列，国际专家队伍不断壮大，国际合作日益广泛，在合作办学卓有成效。<br />
同时，师大的领导班子也是经过精心挑选，如师大中心副主任任海燕博士，熟知18世纪英国文学。范尼和李艳青教授最近联合开办了德语系。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Changsha is both the place of one of the earliest universities in China, founded in 976 CE, the Yuelu Academy 岳麓书院, and together with its attached High School, Hunan Normal University and its Foreign Studies College founded by Qian Zhongshu is famous for its history of educating leaders with a thinking outside of the box. Similarly, Humboldt has said: “How a person masters his fate is more important than what his fate is.” This is just what Humboldt fought for. Humboldt is famous not just in Germany and Europe, but also in the United States, Russia, Asia and world-wide. He shaped our understanding of universities, research, teaching and education. Today, it is safe to say that the German universities are Humboldian universities, also European ones, Ameri-can ones and certainly also Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
When Humboldt traveled Central Asia and wrote about China, he certainly never would have dreamed of the realization of such a Center to his honor in Changsha. However, he would have been overwhelmed and would see his dreams realized here. With this Research Center it is now possible to explore the relation of Humboldt and China in great detail. Moreover, the relation between China and Europe can be explored here from a transdisciplinary perspective. Coopera-tion is key. With Humboldt’s words: “Collaboration operates through a process in which the suc-cessful intellectual achievements of one person arouse the intellectual passions and enthusiasms of others.”<br />
<br />
当洪堡游历中亚，写到中国时，肯定做梦也想不到长沙会是实现他梦想中荣耀的地方。但那样的话，他虽会看到自己实现梦想，也会不堪重负。现在有了这一研究中心，我们可以更详细地探讨洪堡与中国的关系。而且，可以从跨学科的角度来探讨中欧的关系。其关键是合作。正如洪堡所说:“合作是是通过一个人的智慧成就激发其他人的智力激情和热情来实现的”<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
As Jean Monnet Chair of Hunan Normal University 欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授” and as the direc-tor of the International Chinese Studies Center at Foreign Studies Center I reach out with both hands to the new Center and offer to bring in European and Chinese networks, to start immediate and concrete joint research. <br />
<br />
I close with a final quote from Humboldt: “The most dangerous worldview is the worldview of those who have not viewed the world.” Therefore, the Center now allows scholars from other places in the world to see China and offers Chinese colleagues a bridge to Europe and interna-tional scholarship.<br />
<br />
And I wish the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies great success!<br />
<br />
作为湖南师范大学欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授”以及外国研究中心国际汉语研究中心主任的让·莫内主席，我两手准备着新的中心，并提议向欧洲和中国引进网络，以开始目前的具体的联合研究。<br />
<br />
最后，我引述洪堡的最后一句话：“最危险的世界观是那些没有看过世界的人的世界观。” 因此，该中心欢迎来自世界各地的学者参观中国，并为中国同事搭建通往欧洲和国际奖金的桥梁。<br />
<br />
祝洪堡跨学科研究中心取得圆满成功！--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
MARTIN WOESLER<br />
<br />
'''THE CHINESE PRODUCTION CULTURE<br />
<br />
Genuity, changes and compatibility with modern international production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''中国制造哲学'''<br />
<br />
原始传统、变化和对现代国际制造文化的兼容<br />
<br />
吴漠汀著<br />
<br />
歐洲大學出版社2011年<br />
European University Press 2011<br />
<br />
Content<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
Cultural approach<br />
<br />
National Cultures<br />
<br />
Approaches/Perspectives <br />
<br />
The Japanese Production Culture<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
China - Factory of the world<br />
<br />
中国——世界工厂<br />
<br />
Genuity of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
Made in China<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
Characteristics of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的特征<br />
<br />
Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes<br />
<br />
现代商品文化的形成及其原因<br />
<br />
Necessity is the mother of invention<br />
<br />
创造始于需要<br />
<br />
Changes in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的发展<br />
<br />
Roles in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的作用<br />
<br />
The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979<br />
<br />
1949-1979年社会主义的插曲<br />
<br />
Gaming in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的博弈<br />
<br />
Effects on the company<br />
<br />
对公司产生的影响<br />
<br />
Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?<br />
<br />
中国现代经营理念和商品文化是全球的标杆，这一点体现在哪里？<br />
<br />
Logistics<br />
<br />
物流<br />
<br />
Appendix: References <br />
<br />
附录：参考文献<br />
<br />
Appendix: Historical Timeline China<br />
<br />
附录：中国历史时间轴<br />
<br />
Index<br />
<br />
索引<br />
<br />
'''Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
中国现代商品文化<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
中国作为全球工厂是否为国际商品文化树立标杆？--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the Japanese economy lacked the finances for new machinery and, in consequence, decision-makers concentrated on optimizing existing resources and processes. Soon lean production, just in time production and quality circles became export hits, even though Japanese production culture in many ways remained typically Japanese - for instance on issues such as hierarchy and loyalty on the part of employees. Today, the modernity of a factory is measured by the extent to which these characteristics of Japanese production culture are put into practice. After the Second World War, this approach developed into a model for an international production culture.<br />
By the beginning of the 21st century, the Chinese economy had surpassed that of Japan;<br />
<br />
二战后，日本财政无力支撑新型制造业的发展，决策者只能大力利用已有的资源和工艺技术。尽管日本的制造文化在许多方面仍然具有典型的日本特征，比如等级制度以及雇员的忠诚度等问题，但很快，精益生产以及品质圈成为出口热门。而今，日本制造文化应用于实践的程度是衡量工厂现代化程度的重要标准。二战后，这种方法成为一种典型的国际制造文化。<br />
到了21世纪初，中国经济超越了日本。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
today, China is a global factory. This subproject analyzes and defines the "Chinese production culture“ and focuses on the question of whether any of its modern characteristics can serve as a model for international production culture. Based on surveys by Hofstede (2009), case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku (2006) and on fundamental thinking of Philip Huang, the project takes as its premise that the development of Chinese production culture falls into different historical periods: from the genuinely Chinese production culture of silk, china and tea production over the slumbering industrial revolution, the import of Western manufacturing culture, the building of larger production units in the socialist a tradition, to today’s mixed production culture with Japanese and Western elements.<br />
<br />
如今，中国是一个“世界工厂”，本子项目对“中国生产文化”进行了分析和界定，并着重探讨了中国生产文化的现代特征是否可以作为国际生产文化的典范这一问题。该项目基于霍夫斯特德（2009年）、洪/佩赫宁/凯莱海库（2006年）的案例研究和黄菲浦的基本思想，以中国生产文化发展为前提，从不同的历史时期进行探讨：从沉睡的工业革命时期真正的中国丝绸、瓷器、茶叶生产文化，西方制造文化的进口，社会主义传统中大型生产单位的建设，到当今中日两国混合生产文化与日西元素的混合。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:02, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
But still today's production culture comes with some genuinely Chinese characteristics: the Confucian understanding of the relation boss - team leader – employee, hierarchy, the concept of face (and critique), the informal network management in the decision finding process, the esteem for the concept of age, nepotism, the play instinct (including imitation), flexibility and speed. This subproject explores which of these elements are exportable in principle and which ones can be profitably implemented within international production cultures.<br />
<br />
但今天的生产文化仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对老板-团队领导-员工关系的理解、等级、脸观（和批评）、决策查找过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、游戏本能（包括模仿）、灵活性和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可输出的，哪些元素可以在国际生产文化中有利可图地实现的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
但如今的文化生产仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对“老板-团队领导-员工”关系的理解、等级、脸面观（和批评）、决议过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、好玩的天性（包括模仿）、灵活度和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可以输出的，哪些元素可以在国际文化生产中有利可图。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Cultural approach'''<br />
文化方法<br />
<br />
As a cultural scientist, the author of this script applies the approach of Cultural Science to describe economical cultures or subcultures. One of the subcultures of economical culture is the way or culture of management and production.<br />
<br />
作为文化科学家，该脚本的作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。 经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
作为一名文化科学家，本文作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After a phase of several decades in which mathematics has found its way into economics, cultural studies has also been rediscovered by economics in recent years.Cultural studies can be a helpful supplement, for example, when predictions for economic behavior need to be made, for example in models. The economic sciences initially contribute Homo oeconomicus, the self-interest maximizer. In recent years, especially since 2000, many experiments have shown that humans often behave diametrically opposed to self-interest:<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段之后，近年来文化也被经济学重新发现了，例如当需要对经济行为进行预测时， 比如在一些模型中，文化研究可以作为有益的补充。经济科学起初是对自利最大化者经济人的贡献。 近年来，尤其是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为常常与自我利益截然相反：--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段后，近年来经济学也重新发现了文化研究。例如，当需要对经济行为进行预测时，比如在模型中，文化研究可以是一种有益的补充。经济科学最初贡献了“经济人”，即利己最大化者。近年来，特别是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为往往与自身利益截然相反:--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
'''Case 1) The bag of oranges'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: An orange seller sells bags of oranges to tourists. He has a few rotten oranges that he could put in the bags at the bottom. The tourists would not notice it when buying and would not go to this place again because of a few rotten oranges. <br />
<br />
Behavior: He does not do it, however, but throws the rotten oranges away.<br />
<br />
Cultural-scientific explanation: In the present case, the merchant is thus ethically-morally socially responsible out of a sense of justice.<br />
案例1)橘子袋<br />
最初的情况:一个卖橘子的人把成袋的橘子卖给游客。他有几个烂橘子，他可以把它们放进底部的袋子里。游客在购买时不会注意到它，也不会再去这个地方，因为有几个烂橘子。<br />
行为:但是他没有这样做，而是把烂橘子扔了。<br />
文化-科学的解释:在当时的情况下，商人出于正义感而负有伦理道德上的社会责任。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
One can try to construct a self-interest with the help of neurobiology: Biology leaves him no choice - if he behaves justly, although he might behave unjustly, he is rewarded with dopamine and other happiness hormones. If he were to behave unfairly at all times, he would have a guilty conscience, coupled with the fear of being caught, and sooner or later he might get stomach ulcers. In the long run, acting justly secures his life statistically better, also with regard to the economic value of his own life. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
However, if you ask the orange seller, he will at best say that it would be unfair to cheat his customers. Of course, there will always be a small number of fraudulent orange sellers in such experiments who value short-term profit more highly than long-term physical damage, if they expect it at all. And they will perhaps adopt a world view to avoid a guilty conscience, such as that rich tourists should give some of their wealth to poor orange sellers. And there will be people who cannot distinguish right from wrong due to a corresponding anatomically detectable defect in the reward system.<br />
然而，如果你问卖橘子的商家，他充其量会告诉你欺骗他的顾客不公平。当然，总会有一小部分虚假的商贩，他们考虑更多的是短期内的获利而不是长期上身体方面的伤害。而且，在他们的世界观里面，会存在去避免良知羞愧的想法，比如认为：富有的游客理应给贫穷的卖橘子的商贩一些金钱。并且由于在奖惩体系里面有一种自动化的追踪手段，有些人就不会在对和错之间进行区分。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:58, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The following experiments are some of the classic and most frequently conducted and tested experiments to complement the maximization of self-interest:<br />
<br />
'''Case 2) Ultimatum game: share 10 Euros'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: A student in Bonn is offered 10 €. The only condition: He has to give any partial amount to his fellow student. His fellow student has the right either to accept the amount allocated to him or to refuse to accept the whole 10 € for him and his fellow student.<br />
<br />
以下实验是一些经典且最常进行和测试的实验，以补充自我利益的最大化：<br />
案例2）最后通牒博弈：分享10欧元<br />
初始情况：向波恩的一名学生提供10欧元。 唯一的条件：他必须给他的同学任何部分款项。 他的同学有权接受分配给他的款项，或者拒绝接受他和他的同学的10欧元。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Prediction according to the self-interest maximization: The first student will keep 9,99 € and give 0,01 € to the fellow student. The fellow student would have to accept the 0.01 €, as this is more than 0.00 €.<br />
<br />
Conduct: In fact, about 90% of the students in similarly conducted experiments worldwide give 5 € to their fellow student. In the few cases in which the students want to give 2 € to their fellow student and keep 8 €, the fellow student refuses the 10 € completely, and so both go away empty-handed.<br />
根据自身利益最大化的预测:第一个学生将保留9,99欧元，并给予同伴0,01欧元。这个同学将不得不接受这0.01欧元，因为这超过了0.00欧元。<br />
行为:事实上，在全球范围内进行的类似实验中，大约90%的学生会给他们的同学5欧元。在少数情况下，学生想给他们的同学2欧元，留下8欧元，那个同学完全拒绝了这10欧元，所以两人都空手而去。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 04:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The maximization of self-interest cannot explain the behavior in both situations. Here, cultural studies provide an explanation that is supported by neurobiologists. <br />
<br />
Cultural studies explanation: <br />
<br />
For the fellow student, relative justice is more important than his own absolute gain. If the student takes more for no reason, there are various reasons not to allow this, e.g. educational. Furthermore, this is a decision under observation and the reward system rewards behavior in the sense of justice all the more, if justice has to be bought even with one's own loss.<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种情况下的行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个解释，这个解释为神经生物学家所认可。<br />
<br />
这个解释如下:<br />
<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。有很多理由反对学生无故得到超过自己应得的利益，比如教育方面的原因。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会奖励正义感的行为。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 03:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个神经生物学家所认可的解释。<br />
这个解释如下：<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。如果某同学无缘无故地得到更多，那么他就有更多样的理由不去遵守规则，比如在教育方面。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会鼓励正义行为。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个神经生物学家所认可的解释。<br />
这个解释如下：<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，应当将评选中的公平原则置于自己的绝对利益至上。如果某同学无缘无故地得到更多，那么他就有更多样的理由不去遵守规则，比如在教育方面。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会鼓励正义行为。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Neurobiologists also explain that men consider a constellation such as this experiment like a zero-sum game and feel a sense of competition, i.e. they see the greater gain of the other as a loss for themselves.<br />
<br />
By the way, the environment also influences the degree of self-maximization against a sense of justice:<br />
<br />
神经生物学家也解释道，人们将这个实验视为一种零和博弈，并且感到一种竞争感。也就是说，人们将他人的更大收获视作自己所遭受的损失。并且，环境也会影响到自我利益最大化和公正感之间的对比。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 14:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:42, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Case 3) Bank bill in letter'''<br />
<br />
If one lets a 5 Euro bill shine through the window of an envelope that is half hanging out of the mailbox, 4 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will grab it. If you paint a graffiti on the wall next to the mailbox and put some garbage next to the mailbox, 8 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will access it.<br />
如果把一封装有5欧元的钞票的半透明信封从窗户扔下去，那么十个路人中会有四个会捡起它。如果在邮箱旁边的墙上画上涂鸦，并在邮箱旁边放了一些垃圾，则每10个路人中就有8个人会走过去，对其视而不见。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:42, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Case 4) Primates<br />
<br />
Behavioral researchers have successfully demonstrated homo economicus in primates: There chimpanzees help each other to get shared food. If the first chimpanzee has the opportunity to give both of them the same amount or more food, it will give as much food as possible.<br />
<br />
案例4）灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物在经济观：黑猩猩之间互相帮助，获取共同的食物。 如果第一个黑猩猩有机会给他们两个人相同或更多的食物，它将给予尽可能多的食物。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
案例4)灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物中的“经济人”:黑猩猩会帮助彼此以获得共同的食物。如果第一只黑猩猩有机会给它们两只本身相同数量或更多的食物，它就会尽可能给予更多的食物。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Of course, the assumption of self-interest is a reasonable approach to explain phenomena in economic life, since companies are primates in many things, but in marketing they want to appear inwardly and outwardly as human, with social responsibility and a sense of justice. The Chinese Management and Production Culture (CMPC) has a clear distribution of power in the hierarchy, which corresponds to the maximization of self-interest, but the boss has a stronger responsibility towards his employees, which also includes private areas, so that there is an above-average social component.<br />
<br />
当然，个人利益的假设是解释经济生活现象的一种合理方法。因为在很多事上公司是灵长类动物，但公司在市场上向内向外都想像人一样呈现出一种社会责任感和正义感。中国管理和生产文化部门有着权力分布明确的等级制度，这符合个人利益最大化，但老板对其职员的责任更重，员工也包括私人领域，以至于社会因素平均高于其他因素。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 05:02, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
Häring, Norbert: „''Der Homo oeconomicus ist tot''“, in: Financial Times Deutschland (14.3.2001) http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
<br />
Schlicht, Ekkehart: „''Der homo oeconomicus unter experimentellem Beschuß''“, in: Martin Held, Gisela Kubon-Gilke & Richard Sturn (Hrsg.): ''Experimente in der Ökonomik. Jahrbuch normative und institutionelle Grund-fra¬gen der Ökonomik 2.'' Metropolis-Verlag, Marburg 2003, ISBN 3-89518-414-4, http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf<br />
<br />
参考文献<br />
<br />
诺伯特·海灵（Häring），“经济人已死”，载于：《德国金融时报》（14.3.2001）http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
Schlicht，Ekkehart：“实验经济下的同等经济”，载于：Martin Held，Gisela Kubon-Gilke和Richard Sturn（编）：经济学实验。 《经济学年鉴规范和制度基本问题》，第二届大都会出版社，马尔堡，2003年，ISBN 3-89518-414-4，http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:44, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
'''National Cultures''' <br />
<br />
Cultural differences decrease as the world becomes globalized. National characteristics become blurred, companies have to operate in different locations worldwide and sell their products in different markets.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, there are historically grown traditions that come from a time when there was often already intensive global trade, but less intensive cooperation and less exchange of information.<br />
<br />
'''民族文化'''<br />
<br />
随着世界全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征变得模糊起来，企业不得不在全球各地运营和在不同市场上销售产品。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展至今，那时全球贸易虽然已经十分密集，但密切合作更少，信息交流也更少。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 08:51, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
随着世界日益全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征也变得模糊起来，企业需在全球各地运营并将其产品销往各国市场。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展保留至今，那时全球贸易虽已十分频繁，但密切的合作以及信息的交流远不如今。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全球化程度愈深，文化差异愈少。民族特色模糊起来，企业需要在世界范围内运营，其生产的产品也将销往世界各地。但是，仍有传统沿袭历史发展至今，那时国际贸易已十分频繁，但合作及信息交流远不及今。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Decoding_and_Recoding.docx&diff=105498File:Decoding and Recoding.docx2020-11-23T05:27:33Z<p>Peng Dan: Peng Dan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Decoding and Recoding.docx&quot;</p>
<hr />
<div></div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Decoding_and_Recoding.docx&diff=105497File:Decoding and Recoding.docx2020-11-23T05:26:00Z<p>Peng Dan: Peng Dan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Decoding and Recoding.docx&quot;</p>
<hr />
<div></div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Decoding_and_Recoding.docx&diff=105496File:Decoding and Recoding.docx2020-11-23T05:25:57Z<p>Peng Dan: Peng Dan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Decoding and Recoding.docx&quot;</p>
<hr />
<div></div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Decoding_and_Recoding.docx&diff=105495File:Decoding and Recoding.docx2020-11-23T05:25:53Z<p>Peng Dan: Peng Dan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Decoding and Recoding.docx&quot;</p>
<hr />
<div></div>Peng Danhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Decoding_and_Recoding.docx&diff=105493File:Decoding and Recoding.docx2020-11-23T05:24:09Z<p>Peng Dan: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Peng Dan